O/𖣠⚪ᗩ∣ↀ∣𒾨⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪𒾨∣ↀ∣ᗩ⚪𖣠/𖣠⚪✤ᴥᗩ⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪ᗩᴥ✤⚪𖣠/𖣠⚪ᕭᕮ∣ᕼᗩ𒾨ᗩᑐᑕ∣ߦ⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪ߦ∣ᑐᑕᗩ𒾨ᗩᕼ∣ᕭᕮ⚪𖣠/𖣠⚪∣ꕢ∣ᕼ✻⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪✻ᕼ∣ꕢ∣⚪𖣠/𖣠⚪ꕢᗱᗴߦᗱᗴ⧲ЗԐ⊙∣❁∣ᑏ∣᨟✤ᕼ∣𖣓Ȋ̮∣❁∣𒾨ᗱᗴ✤∣❁∣⧻⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪⧻∣❁∣✤ᗱᗴ𒾨∣❁∣Ȋ̮𖣓∣ᕼ✤᨟∣ᑏ∣❁∣⊙ЗԐ⧲ᗱᗴߦᗱᗴꕢ⚪𖣠/𖣠⚪✤ꕤᗱᗴ✤⚪𔗢⚪🞋⚪𔗢⚪✤ᗱᗴꕤ✤⚪𖣠/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕᗱᗴᑐᑕꖴߦᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀ᙁᗩИNꖴᑐᑕꖴᗝᗱᗴᙏ⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ᙏᗱᗴᗝꖴᑐᑕꖴИNᗩᙁ⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕߦꖴᑐᑕᗱᗴᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT

CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL SPICES
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PEGGY-ANN K. DUKE HAS THE COPYRIGHT TO ALL BLACK AND WHITE LINE ILLUSTRATIONS.
THIS BOOK CONTAINS INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM AUTHENTIC AND HIGHLY REGARDED SOURCES. REPRINTED MATERIAL IS QUOTED WITH
PERMISSION, AND SOURCES ARE INDICATED. A WIDE VARIETY OF REFERENCES ARE LISTED. REASONABLE EFFORTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO PUBLISH
RELIABLE DATA AND INFORMATION, BUT THE AUTHOR AND THE PUBLISHER CANNOT ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE VALIDITY OF ALL MATERIALS
OR FOR THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR USE.
NEITHER THIS BOOK NOR ANY PART MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL,
INCLUDING PHOTOCOPYING, MICROFILMING, AND RECORDING, OR BY ANY INFORMATION STORAGE OR RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PRIOR
PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER.
THE CONSENT OF CRC PRESS LLC DOES NOT EXTEND TO COPYING FOR GENERAL DISTRIBUTION, FOR PROMOTION, FOR CREATING NEW WORKS,
OR FOR RESALE. SPECIFIC PERMISSION MUST BE OBTAINED IN WRITING FROM CRC PRESS LLC FOR SUCH COPYING.
DIRECT ALL INQUIRIES TO CRC PRESS LLC, 2000 N.W. CORPORATE BLVD., BOCA RATON, FLORIDA 33431.
TRADEMARK NOTICE: PRODUCT OR CORPORATE NAMES MAY BE TRADEMARKS OR REGISTERED TRADEMARKS, AND ARE USED ONLY FOR
IDENTIFICATION AND EXPLANATION, WITHOUT INTENT TO INFRINGE.
VISIT THE CRC PRESS WEB SITE AT WWW.CRCPRESS.COM
© 2003 BY CRC PRESS LLC
NO CLAIM TO ORIGINAL U.S. GOVERNMENT WORKS
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER 0-8493-1279-5
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CARD NUMBER 2002067412
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
PRINTED ON ACID-FREE PAPER
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL SPICES / JAMES A. DUKE … [ET AL.].
P. CM.
INCLUDES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES AND INDEX.
ISBN 0-8493-1279-5 (ALK. PAPER)
1. MATERIA MEDICA, VEGETABLE--HANDBOOKS, MANUALS, ETC. 2. SPICES--THERAPEUTIC
USE--HANDBOOKS, MANUALS, ETC. 3. HERBS--THERAPEUTIC USE--HANDBOOKS, MANUALS, ETC. I.
DUKE, JAMES A., 1929-
RS164 .C826 2002
615′.321--DC21 2002067412
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PERHAPS IT IS UNUSUAL TO ACKNOWLEDGE ONE'S COAUTHORS IN A NEW BOOK, BUT I SURE WISH TO ACKNOWLEDGE
MINE FOR THEIR PATIENCE AND PERSEVERANCE WITH THIS NEW BOOK. TO MARY JO BOGENSCHUTZ-GODWIN
FOR TIDYING UP MY MOST UNTIDY FIRST DRAFTS, AND FOR QUERYING OUR DATABASE, AFTER UPDATING THE DATABASE
AT THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA), WORKING WITH MY FORMER USDA COLLEAGUES
JIMMIE MOWDER, ED BIRD (DECEASED), AND QUINN SINNOTT. I AM OF COURSE INDEBTED TO THE USDA FOR
MAINTAINING THE DATABASE THESE MANY YEARS AND TO DR. ALAN STONER FOR FACILITATING THIS. READERS OF
THE BOOK WILL REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE USDA DATABASE IN SHAPING SOME OF OUR NEW CONCEPTS
AND EVEN FOR SUGGESTING NEW INDICATIONS FOR OLD SPICES. TO JUDI DUCELLIER WHO, FOR MORE THAN 25
YEARS, HAS QUIETLY, AND WITHOUT COMPLAINING, STRUGGLED NOT ONLY WITH MY ILLEGIBLE HANDWRITTEN NOTES,
COMPLETE INCOMPETENCE AT THE COMPUTER, QUICK REPRIORITIZATIONS, AND NOW TERMINAL DYSLEXIA (DOUBLE
MEANING INTENDED), AND PRODUCED USEFUL DOCUMENTS THAT I MOLD INTO FIRST DRAFTS. TO PEGGY-ANN K.
DUKE, BOTANIST AND CO-COMPILER, FOR CLOSER TO FIVE DECADES, TO WHOM BOTH THE WORLD AND I ARE
INDEBTED FOR HER TALENTED ART, LEARNED AS A BOTANIST WHILE SHARING WITH ME THE WONDERS OF BOTANY AT
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, UNDER OUT GREAT TEACHERS, ALPHABETICALLY, DRS. J. E. ADAMS, C. R.
BELL, J. N. COUCH (WHO SWORE I COULD NOT BE BOTH A BOTANIST AND A MUSICIAN; MY MUSIC PROVES HIM
RIGHT), VICTOR GREULACH, A. E. RADFORD, AND H. R. TOTTEN, WHO KEPT US INTERESTED IN BOTANY. THAT
INTEREST IS STILL TODAY REFLECTED, IN THE SEVEN PLUS DECADES OF PEGGY'S AND MY LIVES, IN MY GREEN
FARMACY GARDEN IN MARYLAND AND THE RENUPERU GARDEN IN PERU WHICH I STARTED NEARLY A DECADE
AGO. IT NOW FUNCTIONS FINE WITHOUT ME, THANKS TO PAMELA BUCUR DE AREVALO AND THE WONDERFUL
WORKERS AT THE EXPLORAMA LODGES OF AMAZON PERU, WHERE PEGGY AND I SHARED THE TURNING OF THE
NEW MILLENNIUM. COINCIDENTALLY, WE MAY BE LEADING A COURSE THERE AT THE RENUPERU GARDEN NEXT
YEAR, TEACHING LATIN AMERICANS HOW TO BETTER GROW AND PROCESS SOME HERBS, MEDICINAL PLANTS AND
SPICES COVERED IN THIS BOOK. AS I HAVE STRUGGLED WITH THIS BOOK, I HAVE HAD THE MARVELOUS LUCK TO
HAVE ACQUIRED A NEW DIRECTOR FOR MY GREEN FARMACY GARDEN, PHYTOPATHOLOGIST HOLLY SHULL VOGEL.
IN A SENSE, SHE KEEPS THE GREEN FARMACY GARDEN ALIVE THROUGH UNFAILING LABORS, TOO OFTEN ALL HER
OWN. SHE SHARES MY VISION OF TEACHING AMERICA ABOUT THE BEST AND SAFEST MEDICINES, LIKE SOME OF
THE SPICES IN THIS BOOK. ILLUSTRATIONS FOR THE ONION, FRANKENCENSE, CASSIA, CINNAMON AND CASSIA, GARLIC,
BAYLEAF, AND MYRTLE ARE USED WITH THE PERMISSION OF DUKE, J., MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE BIBLE, TRADOMEDIC BOOKS, BUFFALO, NEW YORK, 1983. ALL OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS IN THIS BOOK ARE COURTESY OF PEGGYANN K. DUKE. OUR THANKS TO THOSE PATIENT PEOPLE AT CRC WHO TOLERATED OUR FREQUENT CHANGES OF
DIRECTION, ESPECIALLY BARBARA NORWITZ, SARA KREISMAN, AND JOETTE LYNCH. AND TO YOU, THE READER,
AND YOUR HEALTH, MAY THE SPICES OF LIFE PROLONG AND ENHANCE THE QUALITY OF YOUR LIVES, SAVING YOU
FROM WHAT IS BELIEVED TO BE AMERICA'S BIGGEST KILLER, ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS (ADR'S) ACCORDING
TO THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, MAY 1, 2002.
JAMES A. DUKE
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE AUTHOR
JAMES A. “JIM” DUKE, PH.D., IS A PHI BETA KAPPA GRADUATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA,
WHERE HE RECEIVED HIS PH.D. IN BOTANY. HE THEN MOVED ON TO POSTDOCTORAL ACTIVITIES AT WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY AND THE MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDENS IN ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, WHERE HE ASSUMED PROFESSOR
AND CURATOR DUTIES, RESPECTIVELY. HE RETIRED FROM THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
(USDA) IN 1995 AFTER A 35-YEAR CAREER THERE AND ELSEWHERE AS AN ECONOMIC BOTANIST. AFTER RETIRING,
HE WAS APPOINTED SENIOR SCIENTIFIC CONSULTANT TO NATURE’S HERBS (A TWIN LABS SUBSIDIARY), AND TO
AN ONLINE COMPANY, ALLHERB.COM. HE CURRENTLY TEACHES A MASTER’S DEGREE COURSE IN BOTANICAL
HEALING AT THE TAI SOPHIA INSTITUTE IN COLUMBIA, MARYLAND.
DR. DUKE SPENDS TIME EXPLORING THE ECOLOGY AND CULTURE OF THE AMAZONIAN RAIN FOREST AND SITS
ON THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND ADVISORY COUNCILS OF NUMEROUS ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN PLANT
MEDICINE AND THE RAINFOREST. HE IS UPDATING SEVERAL OF HIS PUBLISHED BOOKS AND REFINING HIS ONLINE
DATABASE, HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/, STILL MAINTAINED AT THE USDA. HE IS ALSO EXPANDING HIS
PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL GREEN FARMACY GARDEN AT HIS RESIDENCE IN FULTON, MARYLAND.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ABBREVIATIONS
CATALOG OF SPICES (A TO Z)
REFERENCE ABBREVIATIONS
REFERENCES
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INTRODUCTION
YOU REMEMBER THE DAYS A DECADE AGO WHEN I CELEBRATED THE 500TH ANNIVERSARY OF COLUMBUS’
“DISCOVERY OF AMERICA” AND THE NATIVE AMERICANS WHO HAD COLONIZED IT SOME 25,000 YEARS
EARLIER AND BEEN VISITED BY SCANDINAVIANS A BIT EARLIER. I BELIEVE LEIF ERICSSON ALSO ENCOUNTERED
NATIVE AMERICANS WHEN HE LANDED NEARLY 500 YEARS EARLIER, UP AROUND VINLAND, NORTH OF THE
UNITED STATES. IN REFLECTING THE ANNIVERSARY OF COLUMBUS’ VOYAGE, I OFTEN MAKE THE COMMENT THAT
COLUMBUS SET SAIL SEEKING BLACK PEPPER AND BLACK INDIANS AND INSTEAD FOUND RED INDIANS AND RED
PEPPER, CHANGING THE CUISINE AND THE MEDICINE OF THE WORLD AND RESHAPING EVERYONE’S FOOD BASKET
AND MEDICINE CHEST SIGNIFICANTLY.
THE TRAVELS OF COLUMBUS OPENED UP ONE OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXCHANGES OF FLORA AND FAUNA,
AND YES EVEN GERMS, INCLUDING SOME LETHAL SMALLPOX GERMS, AS WELL AS HIGHER PLANTS (MANY NEVER
HAVING BEEN SEEN BEFORE OUTSIDE AMERICA) AND ANIMALS. THIS HAS LAXLY BEEN TERMED THE “COLUMBIAN
EXCHANGE,” THE RAPID MOVEMENT, TO AND FRO, OF USEFUL PLANTS AND ANIMALS, SOME FOR THE FIRST TIME,
FROM CONTINENT TO CONTINENT.
FREQUENTLY, THE MAJOR PRODUCERS OF SPICES ARE NOT REGIONS TO WHICH THE SPECIES ORIGINALLY
BELONGED, BUT AREAS OF INTRODUCTION AS A RESULT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
AROUND THE WORLD. I GOT VERY EXCITED AT WHAT I LEARNED IN PREPARING MY TALK, SPICE RACK/MEDICINE
CHEST—FIVE HUNDRED YEARS AFTER COLUMBUS, PRESENTED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF OLDWAYS IN SPAIN THE
FOLLOWING YEAR (DUKE, 1991, 1992). SPICES ARE IMPORTANT MEDICINES THAT HAVE WITHSTOOD THE EMPIRICAL TESTS OF MILLENNIA. NEW BOOKS COME OUT EVERY YEAR EMBRACING THE TIME PROVEN MEDICINAL
EFFICACY OF ONE SPICE OR ANOTHER. CHILE, GARLIC, GINGER, ONION, PEPPER, AND TURMERIC ARE ALMOST AS
POPULAR, AND DESERVEDLY SSO, AS MEDICINES AS THEY ARE AS SPICES.
I’LL FREELY DISPENSE SAGE ADVICE:
SAGE IS AN HERB, NOT A SPICE!
HERBS ARE TASTY TEMPERATE SHOOTS!
SPICES, BARKS, BUDS, SEEDS, ROOTS, AND FRUITS!
THAT’S WHY SPICES ARE MUCH HIGHER PRICED!
I’LL NOT LABOR WITH THE TECHNICAL AND VARYING DEFINITIONS OF SPICES AS OPPOSED TO CULINARY HERBS,
BUT I SUMMARIZED MUCH OF IT IN THE VERSE ABOVE. OVERGENERALIZING, CULINARY HERBS ARE TEMPERATE
LEAFY SHOOTS USED CULINARILY TO FLAVOR OTHER DISHES. AND I KNOW OF NO CULINARY HERB THAT LACKS
MEDICINAL ACTIVITIES. (MENTHA REQUIENII IS SO SMALL THAT IT SEEMS NOT TO HAVE EVOLVED ANY SERIOUS
MEDICINAL FOLKLORE; ITS THE ONLY POPULAR HERB FOR WHICH I FOUND NO PUBLISHED MEDICINAL FOLKLORE.)
AND OVERGENERALIZING, SPICES ARE MORE OFTEN TROPICAL AND INVOLVE OTHER PLANT PARTS, NOT JUST THE
LEAVES AND SHOOTS. BUT THERE IS NO FINE LINE BETWEEN SPICE AND HERB, AND FURTHERMORE NO FINE LINE
BETWEEN, HERB, SPICE, FOOD, AND MEDICINE. CHILE, GARLIC, GINGER, ONION, PEPPER, AND TURMERIC ARE ALL
HERBACEOUS IN THE BOTANICAL SENSE OF THE WORD, I.E., NOT PRODUCING ANY WOOD; THEY ARE ALL OFTEN
INCLUDED IN THE SPICE CHARTS AND STATISTICS OF THE WORLD; THEY ARE ALL FOODS; THEY ARE ALL MEDICINES.
I HAVE INTENTIONALLY OMITTED FROM THIS BOOK MANY OF THE BETTER-KNOWN TEMPERATE CULINARY HERBS.
ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS (DILL), BRASSICA SP. (MUSTARD), CORIANDRUM SATIVUM (CORIANDER), CUMINUM
CYMINUM (CUMIN), FOENICULUM VULGARE (FENNEL), MENTHA SPP. (PEPPERMINT, SPEARMINT, ETC), ORIGANUM VULGARE (OREGANO), OCIMUM BASILICUM (BASIL), PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM (POPPY), PETROSELINUM
CRISPUM (PARSLEY), PIMPINELLA ANISUM (ANISEED), SALVIA OFFICINALIS (SAGE), AND THYMUS VULGARIS
(THYME). THESE ARE CLEARLY CULINARY AND MEDICINAL HERBS, AND ALL ARE CARRIED IN THE USDA SPICE
STATISTICS. MOST ARE ALSO COVERED IN DETAIL AND ILLUSTRATED IN ED. 2 OF OUR CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HERBS (DUKE ET AL., 2002). MANY OF THEM ARE ALSO COVERED IN MY BOOKS ON MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE
BIBLE (DUKE, 1983, 1999), CULINARY HERBS (DUKE, 1985), AND LIVING LIQUEURS (DUKE, 1987).
UNDER INDICATIONS, I LIST MOST PUBLISHED IINDICATIONS THAT CROSSED MY DESK, ALPHABETICALLY,
WITH EACH INDICATION FOLLOWED BY THE ‘F’ OR NUMERICAL SCORE FOR EFFICACY, FOLLOWED BY THE CITATION
FOR THE SOURCE. IT WAS WITH SOME TREPIDATION THAT I CONVERTED MORE SPECIFIC TERMS SUCH AS
ARTHRITIS TO ARTHROSIS, AND BRONCHITIS TO BRONCHOSIS; BUT I THINK THAT WAS A MORE ECONOMICAL
(SPACE WISE) WAS OF PRESENTING THE DATA. CLASSICALLY THE SUFFIX ‘ITIS’ MEANS INFLAMMATION AND
‘OSIS’ MEANS AILMENT OF. THUS ARTHRITIS IS INFLAMMATION OF THE JOINT, AND ARTHROSIS IS BROADER,
MEANING AN AILMENT IN THE JOINT. WHERE SOME AUTHOR JUST SAID “FOR JOINT PROBLEMS,” THAT BECAME
‘ARTHROSIS,’ BUT WHERE THEY WERE MORE SPECIFIC AND SAID INFLAMMATION OF THE JOINT IT MEANS THE
MORE SPECIFIC ‘ARTHRITIS.’ TOWARDS THE END I AGGREGATED BOTH UNDER ‘ARTHROSIS.’ MANY PEOPLE
WILL DISLIKE THE FACT I CONVERTED ALL THE MORE SPECIFIC -ITIS ETNTRIES TO -OSIS, RATHER THAN SOMEWHAT
REDUNDANTLY INCLUDE BOTH.
IN THE INDICATIONS PARAGRAPH, YOU SEE PARENTHETICAL NUMBERS FOLLOWED BY THREE-LETTER ABBREVIATIONS (ABBREVIATION OF SOURCE) OR AN ALPHANUMERIC X-1111111 TO IDENTIFY PUBMED CITATIONS.
A PARENTHETICAL EFFICACY SCORE OF (1) UNDER AN ACTIVITY OR INDICATION MEANS THAT A CHEMICAL IN THE
PLANT OR AN EXTRACT OF THE PLANT HAS SHOWN THE ACTIVITY OR PROVEN OUT EXPERIMENTALLY (ANIMAL, NOT
CLINICAL) FOR THE INDICATION. THIS COULD BE IN VITRO ANIMAL OR ASSAY EXPERIMENTS. A HINT; NOT REAL
HUMAN PROOF! NOTHING CLINICAL YET! I SCORE (2) HERE IF THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT, ETHANOLIC EXTRACT, OR
DECOCTION OR TEA DERIVED FROM THE PLANT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO HAVE THE ACTIVITY OR TO SUPPORT THE
INDICATION IN CLINICAL TRIALS. COMMISSION E (KOM) AND TRAMIL COMMISSION (TRA) APPROVALS
WERE AUTOMATICALLY SCORED (2) ALSO, AS THEY REPRESENTED CONSENSUS OPINIONS OF DISTINGUISHED
PANELS. THE RARE (3) SCORING FOR EFFICACY MEANS THAT THERE ARE CLINICAL TRIALS SHOWING THAT THE PLANT
ITSELF (NOT JUST AN EXTRACT OR PHYTOCHEMICAL DERIVED THEREFROM) HAS THE INDICATION OR ACTIVITIES.
THE SOLITARY (F) IN MANY OF THE CITATIONS MEANS THAT IT IS UNSUPPORTED FOLK MEDICINE, OR I HAVE
NOT SEEN THE SCIENCE TO BACK IT UP. THE THREE-LETTER ABBREVIATIONS ARE USEFUL SHORT CITATIONS OF THE
REFERENCES CONSULTED IN ARRIVING AT THESE NUMBERS. I HAVE BY NO MEANS CITED EVERY SOURCE HERE.
BUT UNLIKE KOM AND HOPEFULLY BETTER THAN PDR FOR HERBAL MEDICINES, ED. 1 AND 2 (PHR AND
PH2), I INDICATE AT LEAST ONE SOURCE FOR EVERY INDICATION AND ACTIVITY I REPORT. COMMISSION E
(BLUMENTHAL ET AL., 1998) DID NOT LIST SOURCES.
AND AFTER MUCH SOUL SEARCHING, I HAVE DECIDED TO SPARE OUR READERS THE LONG LIST OF ALL THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS REPORTED FROM EACH OF THESE SPICES. THESE ARE AVAILABLE FOR YOUR PURVIEW ON THE
USDA PHYTOCHEMICAL DATABASE (HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/). MANY OF THESE ARE DETAILED PARAGRAPHICALLY IN DUKE AND DUCELLIER (1993). INSTEAD, I HAVE PULLED FORWARD FOR YOU SOME OF THE MAJOR
COMPOUNDS THAT MAY UNDERLIE MANY OF THE REPORTED ACTIVITIES OF THESE SPECIES. THESE DATA, TOO, ARE
AVAILABLE ON OUR USDA WEBSITE, WHERE I ALSO LIST THE SOURCE OF EACH DATA ENTRY. ANOTHER NEW FEATURE
IS THE ADDITION OF OUR MULTIPLE ACTIVITY QUERIES, NOT YET AVAILABLE ON THE USDA DATABASE. WITH THE
ABLE ASSISTANCE OF SUE MUSTALISH, R.N., AND LEIGH BROADHURST, PH.D. AND CERTIFIED NUTRITIONIST, I
HAVE ACCUMULATED MANY OF THE ACTIVITIES THAT MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE ALLEVIATION, CORRECTION AND/OR
PREVENTION OF AN AILMENT. THE COMPUTER THEN SEARCHES FOR PHYTOCHEMICALS REPORTED FROM THAT SPICE
THAT HAVE THE DESIRED ACTIVITIES. AS YOU WILL SEE, THIS SHOWS THAT THE SPICE IS A MENU OF BIOLOGICALLY
ACTIVE COMPOUNDS THAT MIGHT HELP THE MALADY. I SUSPECT THE BODY IS SKILLFUL AT SIFTING THROUGH THOSE
PHYTOCHEMICALS WITH WHICH YOUR GENES HAVE CO-EVOLVED FOR SO MANY MILLIONS OF YEARS. THIS DOES
NOT PROVE THAT THE SPICE WILL HELP; IT JUST PROVES THAT THE SPICE CONTAINS PHYTOCHEMICALS, OFTEN BY
THE DOZENS, THAT HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO HAVE USEFUL ACTIVITIES.
IN THIS BOOK, I FOCUS ON THE MEDICINAL APPLICATION OF SPICES. IF YOU NEED TO KNOW MORE ABOUT
QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS AND THE LIKE, I SUGGEST YOU CONSULT PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981) OR TAINTER AND
GRENIS (1993). I FEEL A BIT STRONGER ABOUT THE MEDICINAL POTENTIAL OF SPICES THAN DID PURSEGLOVE,
WHO SAID, “SPICES ARE NO LONGER AS IMPORTANT MEDICINES AS THEY WERE IN THE PAST, BUT SOME HAVE
MINOR USES IN MODERN PHARMACOPOEIAS, OF WHICH PROBABLY THE MOST IMPORTANT IS CAPSICUM.”
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(CAPSICUM SHOWS UP IN PROPRIETARY PREPARATIONS FROM A TO Z, AXSAIN TO ZOSTRIX, JAD.) AS A
MATTER OF FACT, I AGREE WITH PURSEGLOVE THAT THE SPICES DID SUFFER A DECLINE IN BOTH MEDICINAL
IMPORTANCE AND RELATIVE VALUE. BUT I PREDICT THAT SUCH SPICES AS CAPSICUM, CINNAMON, GARLIC,
GINGER, ONION, AND TURMERIC WILL ASSUME RELATIVELY MORE MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE AGAIN, AS THE
ECONOMIC COSTS AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE SIDE-EFFECTS OF PRESCRIPTION PHARMACEUTICALS INCREASE. YOU
SEE, EACH SPICE CONTAINS THOUSANDS OF USEFUL PHYTOCHEMICALS. PHARMACEUTICALS USUALLY CONTAIN
ONLY ONE OR TWO.
I ACTUALLY BELIEVE THAT MANY EDUCATED AMERICANS, AFTER READING THIS BOOK, MAY SOMETIMES
HEAD TO THE SPICE CHEST FOR MINOR AILMENTS INSTEAD OF THE MEDICINE CHEST. WHEN ONE CONSIDERS
THAT 80% OF THE WORLD CANNOT AFFORD OUR PHARMACEUTICALS, I’LL SPECULATE THAT ALREADY MORE
HUMANS USE SPICES AS MEDICINES THAN USE PRESCRIPTION PHARMACEUTICALS. I’LL EVEN PUT THE SPICES
UP AGAINST THE PHARMACEUTICALS, THE GARLIC AGAINST THE STATINS FOR HIGH CHOLESTEROL, THE GINGER
AGAINST ANTACIDS FOR ULCER AND EVEN FOR MORNING SICKNESS (THEY DON’T HAVE AN APPROVED PHARMACEUTICAL), CAPSAICIN VS. ACYCLOVIR FOR SHINGLES, AND TURMERIC VS. VIOXX FOR ARTHRITIS AND VS.
COGNEX FOR ALZHEIMER’S.
I COULD START MY SPICE STORY ~500 YEARS AGO WHEN COLUMBUS DISCOVERED AMERICA, OR
50,000–60,000 YEARS AGO, WHEN HUMANS WERE LEARNING THAT WRAPPING THEIR FOOD IN LEAVES KEPT
THE ASHES OFF, RETAINED THE JUICES, AND SOMETIMES IMPROVED THE FLAVOR, OR EVEN TENDERIZED TOUGH
MEAT; OR CA. 5000 YEARS AGO, WHEN GARLIC AND ONION WERE CONTRIBUTING TO EGYPT’S PYRAMIDS,
GINGER JOINING EARLY CHINESE MEDICINE CHESTS, PEPPER PENETRATING AYURVEDIC MEDICINE CHESTS,
AND SESAME SPICING ASSYRIAN WINES. BABYLONIANS, CA. 2700 B.P. (BEFORE PRESENT), WERE FAMILIAR
WITH CARDAMOM, CORIANDER, GARLIC, SAFFRON, THYME, AND TURMERIC. ASSYRIANS, CA. 2650 B.P., WERE
FAMILIAR WITH ANISE, CARDAMOM, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, GARLIC, MYRRH, POPPY, SAFFRON, SESAME,
THYME, AND TURMERIC. AROUND 2400 B.P., THE FATHER OF MEDICINE, HIPPOCRATES, SAID “LET FOOD BE
YOUR MEDICINE, MEDICINE YOUR FOOD.” ALREADY, HE WAS FAMILIAR WITH CINNAMON, CORIANDER,
MARJORAM, MINT, SAFFRON, AND THYME. IN THOSE DAYS, SPICES WERE AS IMPORTANT FOR MEDICINE,
EMBALMING, PRESERVING FOOD, AND MASKING BAD ODORS, AS THEY WERE FOR MORE MUNDANE CULINARY
MATTERS. NOW, IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM, I MAY BE REVERTING TO THE HIPPOCRATEAN COROLLARY: LET
FOOD BE YOUR MEDICINE. MANY AMERICANS ARE A BIT ALARMED BY JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL
ASSOCIATION STATISTICS (JAMA P. 2891, 1987) THAT THE “PREVALENCE OF FATAL DRUG REACTIONS HAS
BEEN ESTIMATED AT 0.01% FOR SURGICAL IN-PATIENTS AND 0.1% FOR MEDICAL IN-PATIENTS.” THAT
INDICATES THAT AT LEAST 1 IN 1000 PATIENTS IN A HOSPITAL WILL DIE OF IATROGENIC CAUSES. WITH
MEDICINE GETTING MORE AND MORE EXPENSIVE AND IMPERSONAL, AND HIGH IATROGENIC DEATH RATES AS
QUOTED FROM JAMA, PEOPLE ARE ACTUALLY AFRAID OF THEIR DOCTORS AND/OR HEALTH PLANS. I’VE BEEN
WITH THE SAME HEALTH PLAN FOR NEARLY TWO DECADES. ON VISITS TO MY NEUROSURGEON, MY CHARTS
AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGERY (MRI) WERE LOST, SO THAT I WASTED AN AFTERNOON. ON ONE VISIT
TO THE GP, I SAW THE ERRONEOUS COMMENT THAT I WAS ON THE CONTRACEPTIVE PILL. WHEN ONE GP
PRESCRIBED A SULFA DRUG FOR SINUSITIS, HE HAD TO ASK ME IF I WAS ALLERGIC TO SULFA. THIS SHOULD
ALREADY BE IN HIS COMPUTER, AS SHOULD MY BLOOD TYPE. HE COULD PRODUCE NEITHER. HAVING BEEN
WITH A PLAN THAT LONG, I FIND IT DISGRACEFUL THAT THEY CAN’T TELL ME INSTEAD OF ASKING ME. THAT’S
WHY I’M INCLINED TO LISTEN TO NEWS THAT GARLIC MIGHT CURE SINUSITIS, RHINITIS, EVEN MENINGITIS.
AND THAT’S WHY ALL THIS RENEWED INTEREST IN SPICES AND FOODS AS PHARMACEUTICALS, AN AVERSIVE
REVERSION TO HIPPOCRATES. SO SPICES ARE WORKING THEIR WAY BACK INTO THE MEDICINE CHEST, WITH
MANY GOOD REASONS, ECONOMIC, GUSTATORY, AND SALUTORY.
FORMAT
AFTER SOME DELIBERATION I HAVE LIMITED THE ENTRIES ON INDIVIDUAL SPICE SPECIES TO FIVE MAJOR HEADINGS
— MEDICINAL USES, INDICATIONS, OTHER USES, CULTIVATION, AND CHEMISTRY.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MEDICINAL USES
SINCE THE MEDICINAL USES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT TO ME, THEY ARE FIRST. I COVER SOME OF THE MAJOR
HISTORICAL AND / OR NEW FACTS FROM CURRENT FINDINGS, CHEMICAL OR CLINICAL ABSTRACTS. THE FOLK AND REAL
MEDICINAL POTENTIAL OF THE SPECIES ARE NOTED.
INDICATIONS
THE INDICATIONS ARE LISTED IN A CONCISE FORMAT. THE INDICATIONS ARE FOLLOWED BY A PARENTHETICAL SCORE
AND ABBREVIATED REFERENCE CITATION(S). THE SCORES ARE: F = FOLKLORIC ONLY; 1 = WITH IN VITRO, ANIMAL
OR CHEMICAL BUT NO CLINICAL RATIONALE; 2 = WITH POSITIVE CLINICAL TRIALS (OR COMMISSION E APPROVAL)
OF EXTRACTS OF THE SPICE; OR 3 = WITH POSITIVE CLINICAL TRIALS (OR COMMISSION E APPROVAL) FOR THE SPICE
ITSELF, AS IN WHOLE GARLIC. THE SCORE IS FOLLOWED BY AN ABBREVIATION OF ONE OR MORE REFERENCES THAT
HELPED ME ARRIVE AT THE SCORE. THE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES HAVE BEEN OMITTED, MANY OF WHICH ARE
COVERED IN MY CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL HERBS, 2ND ED., PUBLISHED IN JULY 2002. ABOUT 75%
OF THESE SPICES WERE COVERED, INCLUDING SECTIONS ON ACTIVITIES; INDICATIONS; DOSAGE; CONTRAINDICATIONS,
INTERACTIONS AND SIDE EFFECTS; AND EXTRACTS. FOR THE BETTER KNOWN SPICES, I INCLUDE A FEW OF THE DOZENS
OF POSSIBLE MULTIPLE ACTIVITY QUERIES OF THE USDA DATABASE, DELINEATING THE COMPOUNDS IN A PLANT
THAT MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO SEVERAL BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES, EACH OF WHICH MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE RESOLUTION
OF AN “ INDICATION”.
OTHER USES
I DISCUSS THE HISTORICAL AND/OR CONVENTIONAL CULINARY USES AND OTHER NON-MEDICINAL USES OF THE SPICE.
HERE YOU WILL ALSO FIND OCCASIONAL REFERENCES TO PESTICIDAL ACTIVITIES.
CULTIVATION
I HAVE COMPILED INFORMATION ON CULTIVATION OF THE SPICE, SOMETIMES TEMPERED BY MY HANDS-ON
EXPERIENCES IN THE GREEN FARMACY GARDEN, IN HOWARD COUNTY MARYLAND, WHERE I HAVE GROWN MORE
THAN HALF OF THE SPICES COVERED IN THIS BOOK.
CHEMISTRY
ALL OF THE CHEMICALS ARE NOT LISTED. REMEMBER THAT EACH PLANT SPECIES CONTAINS HUNDREDS OF
CHEMICALS IN THE PART PER MILLION LEVELS, AND THOUSANDS IN THE PARTS PER TRILLION LEVELS. HERE, I
SELECT A FEW OF THOSE I DEEM MORE IMPORTANT, OR ABOUT WHICH THERE IS CURRENT BREAKING NEWS.
RARELY, IF EVER, IS ANY PHYTOCHEMICAL WORKING ALONE; MORE LIKELY, PHYTOCHEMICALS ARE ACTING
SYNERGISTICALLY WITH OTHER COMPOUNDS IN A SPECIES. OFTEN SUCH PHYTOCHEMICALS PROTECT THE SPICE
FROM ITS NATURAL ENEMIES, SYNERGETICALLY. THEN, WE HUMANS BORROW THEM, TO PROTECT US FROM
OUR ENEMIES, SYNERGETICALLY. FOR EXTENDED CHEMICAL INFORMATION, READERS ARE REFERRED TO EARLIER
CRC COMPENDIA:
DUKE, J.A., CRC HANDBOOK OF PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN GRAS HERBS AND OTHER ECONOMIC PLANTS, CRC
PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL, 1992
DUKE, J.A., CRC HANDBOOK OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, CRC PRESS, BOCA
RATON, FL, 1992
BECKSTROM-STERNBERG, S. AND DUKE, J. A., HANDBOOK OF MINTS (AROMATHEMATICS): PHYTOCHEMICALS AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES, CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL, 1996
USDA DATABASE (HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DATELINE — SPICE TIMETABLE
• ~60,000,000 B.P. FLOWERING PLANTS, THE SUBJECT OF THIS BOOK, EMERGE AND BEGIN TO EVOLVE
PHYTOCHEMICALS DEFENSIVE AGAINST PHYTOVORES.
• ~6,000,000 B.P. PRIMATES EVOLVE INTO MAN WHO BEGINS CO-EVOLVING WITH THE FLOWERING
PLANTS, SOME EDIBLE, SOME MEDICINAL, SOME POISONOUS.
• ~50,000 B.P. MAN LEARNS OF THE CULINARY ATTRIBUTES OF LEAVES WRAPPED AROUND MEAT FOR
COOKING (MCCORMICK, 1981).
• ~18,000 B.P. MAN CROSSES THE BERING BRIDGE, OPENING UP THE NEW WORLD FOR THE DISCOVERY
OF THE NEW WORLD SPICES, CAPSICUM, CUNILA, OSMORRHIZA, PEUMUS, PIMENTA, SASSAFRAS,
VANILLA.
• ~12,000 B.P. BOLDO MAN IN MONTE VERDE CHILE, WITH BOLDO AND A COUPLE DOZEN MEDICINAL
PLANTS.
• ~7000 B.P. HOT PEPPERS CULTIVATED IN SOUTH AMERICA (WOOD, 1993).
• ~6000 B.P. SUMERIANS USE LICORICE AND OPIUM; FENUGREEK IDENTIFIED IN IRAQ.
• ~5000 B.P. CHARAK, THE FATHER OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINE, CLAIMED THAT GARLIC “MAINTAINS THE
FLUIDITY OF BLOOD AND STRENGTHENS THE HEART” (RAHMAN, 2001). NOT KNOWN IN THE WILD, IT
WAS CULTIVATED IN THE MIDDLE EAST AT LEAST 5000 YEARS AGO.
• ~5000 B.P. ANCIENT HISTORIANS EQUATE THE OWNERSHIP OF GINGER OR ITS TRADE ROUTES WITH
PROSPERITY (SCHULICK, 1996).
• ~4700 B.P. CASSIA RECORDED IN CHINA (BOWN, 2001).
• ~4500 B.P. ANDEAN INDIANS ALREADY USING COCA, THE SOURCE OF COCAINE.
• ~4000 B.P. SHEN NONG FIRST BEN CAO OR NATIVE HERBAL WITH 365 DRUGS, CASSIA, EPHEDRA,
GINSENG, RHUBARB. GARLIC ALREADY IN USE IN CHINA (CONSUMED WITH RAW MEAT), INTRODUCED
INTO JAPAN (RIVLIN, 2001).
• ~3900 B.P. SESAME OIL EXPRESSED IN URARTU (NOW ARMENIA) (TAD).
• ~3730 B.P. JOSEPH SOLD TO ISHMAELITES WITH CAMELS TAKING SPICES, BALM, AND MYRRH TO
EGYPT (GENESIS 37) (PEA).
• ~3600 B.P. CASSIA RECORDED IN EGYPT.
• ~3500 B.P. ART AT QUEEN HATSHEPSUT’S TEMPLE AT LUXOR SHOWED POTTED FRANKINCENSE,
POSSIBLY USED IN REJUVENATING FACE MASKS (BOWN, 2001).
• ~3500 B.P. KING TUT’S TOMB CONTAINED 6 CLOVES GARLIC (FULDER DATES IT ~ 4000 B.C.; RIVLIN
1500).
• 3500 B.P. PAPYRUS EBERS 800 PRESCRIPTIONS; 700 MOSTLY PLANT DRUGS COMPOUNDED SOMETIMES WITH BEER, HONEY, MILK, OR WINE. THE CODEX EBERS, CA. 1500 B.C., IS ONE OF THE
EARLIEST SOURCES INDICATING PRESCRIPTION OF GARLIC TO TREAT CANCEROUS GROWTHS. THE CODEX
ALSO SUGGESTS GARLIC, AS I DO TODAY, FOR CIRCULATORY AILMENTS, GENERAL MALAISE, AND INFESTATIONS WITH INSECTS AND PARASITES (RIVLIN, 2110). FENUGREEK SUGGESTED TO INDUCE CHILDBIRTH
(BOWN, 2001). PROBABLY THE FIRST MENTION OF SESAME (BOWN, 2001).
• ~3400 B.P. POPPY, ITS SEEDS OR ITS OPIUM, APPARENTLY IN CULINARY AND/OR MEDICINAL USE BY
CRETANS, EGYPTIANS, AND SUMERIANS.
• ~3000 B.P. SOLOMON IMMORTALIZES MANY BIBLICAL SPICES IN HIS SONG OF SOLOMON (CAMPHIRE,
CINNAMON, FRANKINCENSE, MYRRH, POMEGRANATE, SAFFRON, SPIKENARD). THE QUEEN OF SHEBA
VISITS, BRINGING AS GIFTS OF STATE “CAMELS THAT BEAR SPICES” (CHRONICLE 9) (PEA).
• ~2775 B.P. OLYMPIC GAMES FOUNDED, CHAMPIONS CROWNED WITH LAUREL (=BAYLEAF).
• ~2700 B.P. BABYLONIANS FAMILIAR WITH CARDAMOM, CORIANDER, GARLIC, SAFFRON, THYME, AND
TURMERIC.
• ~2650 B.P. ASSYRIANS FAMILIAR WITH ANISE, CARDAMOM, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, GARLIC, MYRRH,
POPPY, SAFFRON, SESAME, THYME, AND TURMERIC.
• ~2500 B.P. CHINESE COURTIERS WERE SAID TO HOLD A CLOVE IN THEIR MOUTH WHEN ADDRESSING
AN EMPEROR.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ~2500 B.P. SASRUTA WRITINGS IN INDIA MENTION CARDAMOM, CINNAMON, PEPPER, AND TURMERIC.
• ~2400 B.P. HIPPOCRATES—“FIRST, DO NO HARM. SECOND, LET FOOD BE YOUR FARMACY.” USED
GARLIC FOR PULMONARY COMPLAINTS, ABDOMINAL AND UTERINE GROWTHS (READ CANCER), AND AS A
CLEANSING AGENT AND PURGATIVE. ALSO FAMILIAR WITH CINNAMON, CORIANDER, MARJORAM, MINT,
SAFFRON, AND THYME.
• ~2350 B.P. ARISTOTLE CATALOGUED MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF MANY HERBS AND SPICES.
• ~2335 B.P. ALEXANDER THE GREAT’S ARMY PLUNDERS GAZA, SENDING ITS FRANKINCENSE TO GREECE.
• ~2300 B.P. THEOPHRASTUS, “FATHER OF BOTANY,” DESCRIBED MEDICINAL ATTRIBUTES OF MANY SPICES,
INCLUDING BLACK PEPPER AND LONG PEPPER. HE NOTED THAT HOT SUNNY REGIONS PRODUCED THE MOST
AROMATIC SPICES. LICORICE SUGGESTED FOR ASTHMA, BRONCHOSES, COUGH, PULMONOSES (FAY).
• ~2165 B.P. DEATH OF CHINESE PRINCESS TAI, BURIED WITH CINNAMON, GALANGAL, GINGER, AND PEPPER.
• ~2050 B.P. MITHRIDATES, “THE ROYAL TOXICOLOGIST,” RHIZOMATISTS OFFERING GINGER.
• ~2050 B.P. FIRST MUSTARD SEED BROUGHT TO ENGLAND BY THE ROMANS (MCCORMICK, 1981).
• ~2050 B.P. CAIUS PLINUS SECUNDUS (A.D. 23–79), “PLINY THE ELDER,” NATURAL HISTORY—MEDICAL BOT, LISTED 23 USES FOR GARLIC AGAINST INFECTIONS AND TOXINS (ANTICIPATING P450–2E1
ACTIVITIES ON TOXINS (RIVLIN, 2001) AND MAYBE EVEN ANTIANTHRAX (JAD). PLINY CONSIDERED
LICORICE NATIVE TO SICILY).
• BIRTH OF JESUS. WISE MEN BRING FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH.
• CRUCIFIXION. CHRIST GIVEN “GALL” ON THE CROSS, PERHAPS OPIUM.
• MANY HERBS AND SPICES MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE (ALMOND, ANISE, BAY, BLACK CUMIN, CAPER,
CAROB, CASSIA, CINNAMON, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, FENUGREEK, FRANKINCENSE, GALBANUM,
GARLIC, JUNIPER, LEEK, MARJORAM OR BIBLICAL HYSSOP, MINT, MUSTARD, MYRRH, MYRTLE, ONION,
POPPY, RUE, SAFFRON, SAGE, SPIKENARD, STORAX, POSSIBLY TURMERIC AND WORMWOOD).
• CLOVES REACH CHINA, INDIA, ROME AS SPICE (BOWN, 2001).
• ~47 A.D. PEDANIOS DIOSCORIDES (FIRST CENTURY A.D.) “MATERIA MEDICA,” FOLLOWED THE ROMAN
ARMIES. RECOMMENDED GARLIC TO CLEAN THE ARTERIES, FOR GI DISORDERS, FOR JOINT DISEASE AND
SEIZURES (RIVLIN, 2001). BOILED GARLIC AND OREGANO FOR BEDBUGS AND LICE (FULDER, 1997). GINGER
SUGGESTED AS APHRODISIAC (SCHULICK, 1996). SESAME SEED SPRINKLED ON BREAD (BOWN, 2001).
• ~130–200 A.D. GALEN MEDICINAL EXTRACTS OF GALENICALS CONTAINING DOZENS OF INGREDIENTS
(OPIUM).
• ~200 A.D. GINGER TAXED IN ROME, FIRST LISTED AS MEDICINAL IN CHINA (BOWN, 2001).
• ~300 A.D. BOWER MANUSCRIPT. GARLIC FOR DEBILITY, DYSPEPSIA, FATIGUE, AND INFECTIONS.
• ~410 A.D. ALARIS, THE VISIGOTH, SUBJUGATES ROME AND DEMANDS 3,000 LB PEPPERCORNS AS
TRIBUTE (MCCORMICK, 1981).
• ~570 A.D. BIRTH OF MOHAMMAD.
• ~595 A.D. MOHAMMAD MARRIES KHADIJA, AND THEY RUN A MECCAN SHOP TRADING IN ORIENTAL
SPICES, FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH. MUSLIMS CONSOLIDATE MONOPOLY ON SPICE TRADE, WHICH
LASTS FOR CENTURIES. THE QU’RAN HINTS THAT GINGER (NOT IDENTIFIED IN THE BIBLE) IS A HEAVENLY
AND SPIRITUAL BEVERAGE (SCHULICK, 1996).
• ~600 A.D. CLOVE AND NUTMEG LISTED AS MEDICINAL HERB IN CHINA (BOWN, 2001).
• ~720 A.D. CARDAMON MENTIONED IN CHINA AS MEDICINE (BOWN, 2001).
• LATE EIGHTH CENTURY. FIRST DRUG STORES IN BAGDAD; MUSLIMS AND ARABS RESCUED MANY OF
THE BOOKS FROM CHRISTIAN/ROMAN WARS; THE FIRST APOTHECARY CAMPHOR, CLOVES, CUBEBS,
NUTMEG, TAMARIND.
• ~980–1037 A.D. AVICENNIA (“IBN SINA”), ARABIC SCHOLAR, PERSIAN PHYSICIAN, POET, WRITER
UNANI OR GREEK CANON OF MEDICINE. 200 PUBLICATIONS.
• ~1098–1179 A.D. HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, BENEDICTINE NUN IN RHINELAND. SHE BELIEVED THAT
RAW GARLIC WAS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN COOKED. I STILL BELIEVE THIS. SHE PREDICTS USE OF CELERY
IN “GICHT.” SHE ALSO COVERED CINNAMON, CLOVES, CUBEB (A TYPE OF PEPPER), FENUGREEK,
GALANGAL, GINGER, LICORICE, NUTMEG, PEPPER, ZEDOARY, ETC., PLUS DOZENS OF CULINARY HERBS.
• ~1280 A.D. MARCO POLO OBSERVED GINGER CULTIVATED IN CHINA AND INDIA.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ~1305 A.D. EDWARD I LEVIES A TAX ON LICORICE TO HELP PAY FOR THE LONDON BRIDGE (FAY).
• ~1350 A.D. BLACK DEATH KILLS ~25 MILLION EUROPEANS (PEA). SPICES WIDELY TRIED BUT
UNSUCCESSFULLY, WITH THE POSSIBLE EXCEPTION OF GARLIC.
• ~1368–1654 A.D. BASTARD CARDAMOM FIRST MENTIONED AS CHINESE MEDICINE. MING DYNASTY
(BOWN, 2001).
• ~1447 A.D. ENGLISH OUTLAW ADULTERATION OF SPICES (MCCORMICK, 1981).
• ~1475 A.D. BJORNNSON’S ICELANDIC MANUSCRIPT, BEFORE THE INVENTION OF GIN, PRESCRIBES
JUNIPER-SPICED WINE FOR COLD AND HEADACHE (CEB).
• ~1492 A.D. COLUMBUS SEEKS A SHORT ROUTE TO THE ORIENT AND BLACK INDIANS AND BLACK PEPPER
BUT INSTEAD FINDS RED INDIANS AND RED PEPPER. FOLKLORE SAYS HE WAS GUIDED TO TERRA FIRMA
BY THE AROMA OF SASSAFRAS.
• ~1500 (1493–1541) A.D. PARACELSUS, THE FIRST REDUCTIONIST (CHEMICALS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
MEDICINAL ACTIVITIES OF HERB) DISLIKED THE VOGUE FASCINATION WITH EXOTIC IMPORTED HERBS.
• ~1502 A.D. FERDINAND AND ISABELLA TELL COLUMBUS RE HIS FOURTH VOYAGES, “ALL…SPICES AND
OTHER PRODUCTS MUST BE DELIVERED TO FRANCISCO DE PORRAS” (PEA).
• ~1512 A.D. PORTUGUESE TAKE MOLUCCAS, CONSOLIDATING MONOPOLY ON NUTMEG (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1513 A.D. OVIEDO REACHES DARIEN PANAMA, FIRST TO DOCUMENT CAPSICUM PEPPERS IN TIERRA
FIRME (ANDREWS, 1995).
• ~1536 A.D. PORTUGUESE INVADE CEYLON TO CEMENT MONOPOLY ON CINNAMON.
• ~1560 A.D. SPANIARDS EMPLOY SASSAFRAS FOR VENEREAL DISEASE (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1567 A.D. NUTMEG POISONING REPORTED IN BRITISH PREGNANT LADY WHO INGESTED 10–12
FRUITS AND BECAME DELIRIOUSLY INEBRIATED (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1569 A.D. HUNGARIANS CHANGE NAME OF RED PEPPER TO PAPRIKA (ANDREWS, 1995).
• ~1575 A.D. MONARDES SEVILLE SAYS OF SASSAFRAS, “IT IS ALMOST INCREDIBLE, FOR WITH THE
NAUGHTIE MEATES AND DRINKYING OF THE RAWE WATERS, AND SLEPYING IN THE DEWES, THE MOST
PARTS OF THEM CAME TO FALL INTO CONTINUAL AGUES” (ERICHSEN-BROWN, 1989).
• ~1597 A.D. JOHN GERARD (1546–1607) WRITES HIS HERBAL; LONDON ~1300 MEDICINAL SPECIES;
GINGER NOTED TO “PROVOKE VENERIE” (SCHULICK, 1996; GRIGGS, 1998); “HORSERADISH…COMMONLY USED AMONG THE GERMANS FOR SAUCE TO EATE FISH” (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1600 A.D. “AND HAD I BUT ONE PENNY IN THE WORLD, THOU SHOULDST HAVE IT TO BUY GINGERBREAD.” SHAKESPEARE; LOVE’S LABORS LOST (SCHULICK, 1996).
• ~1600 A.D. HENRY IV OF FRANCE, WHO REGULARLY CHEWED GARLIC, HAS “BREATH THAT WOULD
FELL AN OX AT TWENTY PACES” (FULDER, 1997).
• ~1600 A.D. GEORGE II OF ENGLAND BANS MELEGUETA PEPPER AS INJURIOUS TO THE HEALTH (BOWN,
2001).
• ~1630 A.D. JESUITS RECOGNIZE THE FEBRIFUGAL CAPACITY OF CINCHONA, LONG BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF GIN AND TONIC (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1653 A.D. NICHOLAS CULPEPPER’S THE ENGLISH PHYSICIAN SEEMED TO SPEAK MORE OF HERBS
THAN SPICES, CALLING CAPSICUM BIRD PEPPER, CAYENNE PEPPER, AND GUINEA PEPPER.
• ~1787 A.D. ANNATTO INTRODUCED FOR CULTIVATION IN INDIA (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1800–1850 A.D. SHAKER ERA IN AMERICA. PHYSICS GARDEN AT NEW LEBANON WITH HOREHOUND, MARJORAM, POPPY, SAGE, AND SAVORY.
• ~1803 A.D. SERTURNER ISOLATES AND IDENTIFIES MORPHINE FROM POPPY.
• ~1820 A.D. WINTERGREEN LEAVES LISTED IN U.S. PHARMOCOPOEIA (UNTIL 1894) (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1820 A.D. CAVENTOU AND PELLETIER SEPARATED QUININE AND CINCHONINE FROM PERU BARK.
• ~1835 A.D. TEXANS DEVELOP CHILI POWDER COMBINING VARIOUS GROUND PEPPERS (MCCORMICK,
1981). SALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIZED FOR THE FIRST TIME. (CHILE CONTAINS SALICYLIC ACID.)
• ~1869 A.D. BOLDO “FIRST INVESTIGATED BY A FRENCH PHYSICIAN” (BOWN, 2001).
• ~1884 A.D. FREUD AND THEN KOLLER DISCOVER ANESTHETIC ACTIVITY OF COCAINE.
• ~1915 A.D. 25,000 PHYSICIANS, THE ECLECTICS, EMBRACE GINGER AND OTHER NATURAL MEDICINES
(SCHULICK, 1996).
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
I COULD HAVE STARTED MY SPICE STORY CA. 2300 B.P., WHEN THEOPHRASTUS, FATHER OF BOTANY, WAS
DESCRIBING THE MEDICINAL ATTRIBUTES OF MANY OF OUR SPICES. HE NOTED THAT HOT, SUNNY REGIONS PRODUCED
THE MOST AROMATIC OF SPICES. EVEN TODAY, I OFTEN FIND THAT THE SAME SPECIES, GROWN IN A DRY TOUGH
ENVIRONMENT, HAS MORE OF THE AROMATIC PHYTOCHEMICALS THAN THE SAME SPECIES GROWN IN A SHADIER,
MORE HUMID ENVIRONMENT. A PAMPERED HERB OR SPICE MAY HAVE MORE PRIMARY METABOLITES AND
PROPORTIONATELY FEWER SECONDARY METABOLITES. TRANSLATION: THE PAMPERED ORGANIC HERB OR SPICE MAY
BE THE BETTER FOOD PLANT, BUT THE TOUGH WIRY UNPAMPERED HERB OR SPICE MAY BE THE BETTER MEDICINAL.
I COULD START MY INTRO WITH DIOSCORIDES, LEADING GREEK PHYSICIAN OF THE FIRST CENTURY A.D., WHOSE
WORKS ON BOTANY WERE TO BE THE STANDARDS UNTIL THE DAYS OF COLUMBUS. SOME WOULD SUGGEST I SHOULD
START WITH THE BIRTH OF JESUS, OTHERS WITH THE BIRTH OF MOHAMMAD (A.D. 570). BETHLEHEM AND MECCA
ARE BOTH SUFFERING FROM PROXIMITY TO THE RAVISHES OF WAR TODAY. AND BOTH HAVE EXPERIENCED MILLENNIA
OF SPICE CARAVANS AND SPICE TRADING.
AT THE BIRTH OF CHRIST, WISE MEN BROUGHT ORIENTAL SPICES, FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH. MOST OF THE
OLD WORLD SPICES HAD ALREADY TRAVELED FAR AND WIDE AS SPICES, IF NOT AS PLANTS. THE TEMPERATE SPICES
WERE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED AS PLANTS, BUT THE TROPICAL TREE SPICES STILL WERE DEAR AND SHROUDED IN MYSTERY.
AMONG SPICES MENTIONED IN MY MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE BIBLE (DUKE, 1983; DUKE, 1999) ARE ALMOND,
ANISE, BAY, BLACK CUMIN, CAPER, CAROB, CASSIA, CINNAMON, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, FENUGREEK, FRANKINCENSE, GALBANUM, GARLIC, JUNIPER, LEEK, MARJORAM OR BIBLICAL HYSSOP, MINT, MUSTARD, MYRRH, MYRTLE,
ONION, POPPY, RUE, SAFFRON, SAGE, SPIKENARD, STORAX, AND WORMWOOD. IF YOUR ANCESTORS CAME FROM
THAT PART OF THE WORLD, YOUR GENES HAVE PROBABLY KNOWN THE PHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF MANY OF
THESE BIBLICAL HERBS AND SPICES FOR MORE THAN TWO MILLENNIA.YOUR GENES HAVE NOT YET KNOWN SYNTHETIC
MEDICINES FOR TWO CENTURIES.
THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE WAS CLEAR WHEN ALEXANDRIA WAS OCCUPIED BY THE ARABS IN A.D.
641. BUT ONE VERY IMPORTANT MAN, BORN A.D. 570, PROBABLY AFFECTED EARLY SPICE TRADE EVEN MORE
THAN COLUMBUS, CERTAINLY LONG BEFORE COLUMBUS. AS A YOUNG MAN, THIS IMPORTANT FIGURE WORKED
WITH MECCAN MERCHANTS INVOLVED WITH SPICES IN ARABIA AND SYRIA. THEN HE “GRADUATED” TO THE ROLE
OF CAMEL DRIVER AND CARAVAN LEADER FOR THE WIDOW KHADIJA, 15 YEARS HIS SENIOR. AFTER THEIR MARRIAGE
IN 595, HE SERVED AS A PARTNER IN A MECCAN SHOP TRADING IN ORIENTAL SPICES, FRANKINCENSE, AND MYRRH.
SO, ORIENTAL SPICES WERE IMPORTANT TO MOHAMMAD, FOUNDER OF ONE GREAT RELIGION, AS THEY WERE
TO JESUS, NAMESAKE OF ANOTHER GREAT RELIGION. YET I DON’T FIND THE SPICES, NOT EVEN ARABIAN FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH, LISTED IN THE VERY USEFUL WEBSITE HOSTING THE HADITH. I DO FIND SOME MENTION OF
BLACK CUMIN, HYSSOP, LEEK, MUSTARD, AND ONION, BUT NO CINNAMON, CASSIA, CARAWAY, AND CORIANDER.
NOTHING SEEMS TO RECEIVE HIGHER PRAISE THAN THE BLACK CUMIN, NIGELLA SATIVA (FROM THE DATABASE):
“I HEARD ALLAH’S APOSTLE SAYING, ‘THERE IS HEALING IN BLACK CUMIN FOR ALL DISEASES EXCEPT DEATH’.”
I DO NOT HAVE A SEARCHABLE QU’RAN ON MY COMPUTER LIKE MY SEARCHABLE BIBLE. UNLIKE THE BIBLE,
THE QU’RAN WAS COMPILED OVER A VERY SHORT PERIOD OF TIME AND IS ENTIRELY ORIENTATED TOWARD REVELATION
AND THE WORD OF ALLAH. THE QU’RAN DOES MENTION THE BENEFITS OF CONSUMING CERTAIN FOODS SUCH AS
HONEY AND THE ABSTINENCE OF ALCOHOL, BUT IT CONTAINS VERY LITTLE SPECIFIC INFORMATION ON HEALTH AND
DISEASE. PROPHETIC MEDICINE WAS MOSTLY PRAYER. THE HADITH, HOWEVER, DETAILS GUIDELINES ON DIET AND
THE TREATMENT OF SIMPLE AILMENTS. ONE CAN SEARCH MSA-USC HADITH DATABASE: HTTP://WWW.USC.EDU/
DEPT/MSA/REFERENCE/SEARCHHADITH.HTML
BY 750, THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION STRETCHED 7,000 MILES FROM THE BORDERS OF CHINA TO SPAIN. AND
ARAB TRADERS HAD A MONOPOLY ON ORIENTAL SPICES AND GOLD ALIKE, JUST AS THEY NEARLY ATTAINED MONOPOLIES,
COLLABORATING WITH OTHER OPEC NATIONS, ON PETROLEUM IN MORE RECENT DECADES. THE PORT CITY OF BASRA,
ABOUT WHICH I HEARD SO MUCH IN THE PERSIAN GULF WARS OF THE 1980S AND 1990S, WAS FOUNDED IN THE
YEAR 635 WHERE THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS MEET. THE GREAT PHYSICIAN RHAZES (850–925) BECAME CHIEF
OF THE GREAT HOSPITAL IN BAGDAD, AND HIS WORKS, LIKE THOSE OF AVICENNIA (CA. 1000), INFLUENCED EUROPEAN
MEDICINE HEAVILY. BY 1096, THE FIRST OF THE CRUSADES BEGAN NIBBLING AT THE MUSLIM EMPIRE.
THE USDA ONCE DEFINED SPICES AS PARTS OF PLANTS (DRIED SEEDS, BUDS, FRUIT OR FLOWER PARTS, BARK
OR ROOTS) USUALLY OF TROPICAL ORIGIN. THEY CONTRASTED HERBS AS LEAFY PARTS OF TEMPERATE SPECIES. KING
CHARLEMAGNE ONCE DEFINED AN HERB AND/OR SPICE AS “THE FRIEND OF THE PHYSICIAN AND THE PRIDE OF COOKS.”
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THAT WAS BACK IN THE DAYS WHEN HERBS AND SPICES WERE MAJOR MEDICINALS AND FRIEND OF THE PHYSICIAN.
TODAY, HERBS AND SPICES MAY BE VIEWED WITH LESS THAN DISDAIN BY THE PHYSICIAN AND THE PHARMACEUTICAL
INDUSTRY, AS THEY ARE MORE AND MORE PROVING TO PREVENT DISEASE AS WELL AS CURE IT. FROM ALLIUM FOR
PREVENTING CANCER, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE, HIGH BLOOD SUGAR, AND MAYBE EVEN THE COMMON COLD AND THE
MORE-AND-MORE-COMMON YEAST; THROUGH GLYCYRRHIZA FOR PREVENTING CARIES, DIABETES, MAYBE EVEN
ULCERS; TO ZINGIBER FOR PREVENTING SEASICKNESS AND ULCERS AND ALLEVIATING MORNING SICKNESS, THERE IS
INCREASED INTEREST IN PREVENTIVE MEDICINE AND DESIGNER FOODS TO PREVENT AND/OR ALLEVIATE CURABLE AND
INCURABLE AILMENTS. ALL SPICES HAVE FOLK MEDICINAL REPUTATIONS, AND EXTRACTS OF MOST SPECIES HAVE
EXCITING BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES. ALL SPICES CONTAIN IMPORTANT CURATIVE PHYTOCHEMICALS.
COULD A SPICE RACK PROVE TO BE A MEDICINE CHEST? I DISCOURAGE THAT. NO ONE SHOULD SELF-DIAGNOSE
AND SELF-MEDICATE. THEY SHOULD, HOWEVER, SEEK OUT FOR THEIR PHYSICIANS THOSE HOLISTIC PHYSICIANS
WHO ARE INTELLIGENT ENOUGH TO CONSIDER DIETARY AND LIFESTYLE MODIFICATIONS TO PREVENT AND/OR TREAT
DISEASE, BEFORE THEY SUCKER THE PATIENT INTO THE SYNTHETIC-PILL-A-DAY-FOR-LIFE SYNDROME SO PLEASING
TO THE PHARMACEUTICAL FIRMS AND PHARMACOPHILIC ALLOPATHS.
ANTISEPSIS
EATING, WITH OR WITHOUT SPICES, IS ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS THINGS I DO EVERY DAY. GERMS AND THEIR
TOXINS ARE EVERYWHERE. I OFTEN READ OF DEATHS AND ILLNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH CONTAMINATED FOODS, BE
IT HAMBURGER OR APPLE JUICE. ALL THIS DESPITE MODERN PRESERVATIVES, REFRIGERATION, AND HYGIENIC FOOD
PREPARATION. “PHYTOCHEMICALS ARE LEGACIES OF MULTIPLE CO-EVOLUTIONARY RACES BETWEEN PLANTS AND
THEIR ENEMIES—PARASITES, PATHOGENS, AND HERBIVORES. THESE CHEMICAL COCKTAILS ARE THE PLANTS’
RECIPES FOR SURVIVAL” (SHERMAN AND FLAXMAN, 2001).
AFTER EXAMINING 43 SPICES IN MORE THAN 4500 MEAT-BASED RECIPES FROM TRADITIONAL COOKBOOKS
OF 36 COUNTRIES, SHERMAN AND BILLING (1999) CONCLUDED THAT SPICES ARE USED BECAUSE OF THEIR
ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES. MANY SPICES HAVE ANTIMICROBIAL (ESPECIALLY ANTIBACTERIAL) PROPERTIES. SPICE
USE IS GREATER IN HOT CLIMATES, WHERE MEATS SPOIL RELATIVELY QUICKLY, THAN IN COOL CLIMATES. RECIPES
FROM HOT CLIMATES USE MORE OF THE MOST HIGHLY INHIBITORY SPICES. SPICES ARE OFTEN USED IN QUANTITIES
SUFFICIENT TO KILL MICROBES AND IN WAYS THAT PRESERVE THEIR ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES. COOKBOOKS
PROVIDE RECORDS OF OUR CO-EVOLUTIONARY RACE WITH FOODBORNE PATHOGENS (CHASAN, R., 1999).
STILL, FOODBORNE BACTERIA (ESPECIALLY SPECIES OF CLOSTRIDIUM, ESCHERICHIA, LISTERIA, SALMONELLA,
STAPHYLOCOCCUS, AND STREPTOCOCCUS), OR THEIR TOXINS, DEBILITATE MILLIONS OF PEOPLE ANNUALLY AND KILL
THOUSANDS. DURING 1971–1990, FOOD POISONING, PRIMARILY BACTERIAL, AFFECTED 29.2 OUT OF EVERY 100,000
JAPANESE BUT ONLY 3.0 OUT OF EVERY 100,000 KOREANS. THE KOREAN MEAT-BASED RECIPES ARE SPICIER THAN
THE JAPANESE (SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999). EVEN HERE AT HOME IN THE U.S., FOODBORNE ILLNESSES AFFLICT
AN ESTIMATED 80 MILLION PEOPLE PER YEAR, AND 1 IN 10 AMERICANS EXPERIENCES BACTERIA-RELATED FOOD
POISONING ANNUALLY (HUI ET AL., 1994). TEN THOUSAND OR MORE AMERICANS WILL DIE OF FOOD POISONING,
SAID CSPI ONE YEAR. MOREOVER, NEW FOODBORNE PATHOGENS CONTINUALLY ARE EVOLVING, ALONG WITH
RESISTANCE AMONG EXISTING PATHOGENS TO MONOCHEMICAL BACTERICIDES. STILL, BACTERIA ARE MORE FREQUENTLY
IMPLICATED IN FOODBORNE DISEASE OUTBREAKS THAN YEASTS OR FUNGI. ALL 30 SPICES TESTED WERE FOUND TO
KILL OR INHIBIT AT LEAST 25% OF THE BACTERIAL SPECIES ON WHICH THEY HAD BEEN TESTED, AND 15 INHIBITED
AT LEAST 75% OF BACTERIAL SPECIES (SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999). GARLIC, ONION, ALLSPICE, AND OREGANO
WERE MOST POTENT. THEY INHIBITED OR KILLED EVERY BACTERIUM TESTED. ONE STUDY TESTED EUGENOL, MENTHOL,
AND ANETHOLE ON THREE PATHOGENIC BACTERIA, SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM, STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, AND
VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS. EACH SPICE COMPONENT INHIBITED THE BACTERIA DIFFERENTLY (AND THIS POINTS
TO SYNERGIES WITH SPICE MIXTURES). EUGENOL WAS MORE ACTIVE THAN THYMOL, WHICH WAS MORE ACTIVE
THAN ANETHOLE. EUGENOL AND ISOEUGENOL ARE SPOROSTATIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS AT THE 0.05–0.06% LEVEL.
GINGEROL AND ZINGERONE ALSO HAVE SPOROSTATIC ACTIVITY, BUT AT 0.8–-0.9%. INHIBITION EFFECTIVENESS WAS
RELATED INVERSELY TO THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF THE PHENOLIC (TAINTER AND GRENIS, 1993). THE LONGER THE
SIDE CHAIN ON THE PHENOLIC RING STRUCTURE, THE LESS THE ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; 0.12% GROUND GLOVE
AND 0.02% EUGENOL DECREASED THE RATE AND EXTENT OF GERMINATION OF BACILLUS SUBTILIS SPORES.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CARNOSOL AND URSOLIC ACID WERE TESTED ON SIX STRAINS OF FOODBORNE BACTERIA AND YEAST. THEIR
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY WAS COMPARED TO BHA AND BHT, ALSO KNOWN TO HAVE ANTIOXIDANT AND
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY. CARNOSOL WAS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN BHA OR BHT. URSOLIC ACID WAS MORE
EFFECTIVE THAN BHT (TAINTER AND GRENIS, 1993).
SYNERGY
PEPPER AND CITRIC ACID PLAY SPECIAL ROLES AS SYNERGISTS. “CITRIC ACID POTENTIATES THE ANTIBACTERIAL
EFFECTS OF OTHER SPICES, BECAUSE LOW PH DISRUPTS BACTERIAL CELL MEMBRANES” (SHERMAN AND BILLING,
1999). “BLACK PEPPER COMES FROM PIPER NIGRUM, AN EXCLUSIVELY TROPICAL PLANT WHICH HAS SEVERAL
USEFUL PROPERTIES. FOR EXAMPLE, THE COMPOUND PIPERINE INHIBITS THE UBIQUITOUS, DEADLY BACTERIUM
CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM. BLACK PEPPER IS ALSO A ‘BIOAVAILABILITY ENHANCER,’ MEANING THAT IT ACTS
SYNERGISTICALLY TO INCREASE THE RATE AT WHICH CELLS, INCLUDING MICROORGANISMS, ABSORB PHYTOTOXINS”
(SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999). KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE THAT TAMARIND INCREASED BIOAVAILABILTY
OF OTHER DRUGS, INCLUDING, I PRESUME, HERBAL.
MANY SPICES ARE MORE POTENT WHEN MIXED. FRENCH “QUATRE EPICES” (PEPPER, CLOVES, GINGER,
AND NUTMEG) IS OFTEN USED TO MAKE SAUSAGES AND MAY IN FACT MAKE THE SAUSAGE LAST LONGER. CURRY
POWDER (WHICH CONTAINS 22 DIFFERENT SPICES), PICKLING SPICE (15 SPICES), AND CHILI POWDER (10
SPICES) ARE BROAD-SPECTRUM “ANTIMICROBIAL MELANGES” (SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999). ANDREWS
(1995) ELABORATES ON THIS SPICE CALLED CURRY. ORIGINATING IN INDIA, CURRY IS A COMBINATION OF
FRESHLY GROUND SPICES, PRINCIPALLY CHILI PEPPER, WITH AS FEW AS 5 OR AS MANY AS 50 SPICE
INGREDIENTS. SLIGHTLY ROASTED GROUND CHILLIS ARE POWDERED AND MIXED IN WITH GROUND TURMERIC
(FOR COLOR) AND ADDING CORIANDER, ALONG WITH OTHER SPICES, ALPHABETICALLY, ALLSPICE, ANISE, BAY,
CARAWAY, CARDAMOM, CELERYSEED, CINNAMON, CLOVES, CUBEB, CURRY LEAF, DILL, FENNEL, FENUGREEK
(BOTH LEAVES AND SEEDS), GARLIC, GINGER, JUNIPER, MACE, MINT, MUSTARD, NUTMEG, PEPPER (BOTH BLACK
AND WHITE), POPPYSEED, SAFFRON, SUMAC, ZEDOARY, NOT TO MENTION SALT. ANDREWS LISTS A SIMPLER
CHILE POWDER, A BLEND OF SEVERAL PEPPERS, WITH GARLIC POWDER, OREGANO, CUMIN, CAYENNE AND
PAPRIKA, GARLIC (ANDREWS, 1995).
AVOIDANCE
SHERMAN AND FLAXMAN (2001) STRESS THAT, EVEN IN THOSE COUNTRIES USING SPICES HEAVILY AND REGULARLY,
PRE-ADOLESCENT CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN THEIR FIRST TRIMESTER TYPICALLY AVOID HIGHLY SPICED FOODS.
MORNING SICKNESS MAY REDUCE MATERNAL INTAKE OF FOODS CONTAINING TERATOGENS DURING THE EARLY
EMBRYOGENESIS, WHEN DELICATE FETAL TISSUES ARE MOST SUSCEPTIBLE TO CHEMICAL DISRUPTION. WOMEN
WHO EXPERIENCE MORNING SICKNESS ARE LESS LIKELY TO MISCARRY THAN WOMEN WHO DO NOT. A POSSIBLE
NEGATIVE COROLLARY TO THE SHERMAN AND FLAXMAN HYPOTHESIS MIGHT TEND TO DISCOURAGE THE USE OF
GINGER TO AVOID HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM DURING THE FIRST TRIMESTER. SEE GINGER FOR ITS ROLE IN AVOIDING
MORNING SICKNESS.
SPICE STATISTICS
TODAY, SPICE USE IS UBIQUITOUS, BUT SPICES ARE FAR MORE IMPORTANT IN SOME CUISINES THAN OTHERS.
“JAPANESE DISHES ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED AS DELICATE, INDONESIAN AND SZECHWAN AS ‘HOT,’ AND MIDDLE
EUROPEAN AND SCANDINAVIAN DISHES AS ‘BLAND’” (SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999).
“COOKBOOKS GENERALLY DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEASONINGS (SPICES USED IN FOOD PREPARATION) AND
CONDIMENTS (SPICES ADDED AFTER FOOD IS SERVED), BUT NOT BETWEEN HERBS AND SPICES” (SHERMAN AND
BILLING, 1999). HERBS “ARE DEFINED BOTANICALLY (AS PLANTS THAT DO NOT DEVELOP WOODY, PERSISTENT
TISSUE), USUALLY ARE CALLED FOR IN THEIR FRESH STATE, WHEREAS SPICES GENERALLY ARE DRIED.” 93% OF RECIPES
CALL FOR AT LEAST ONE SPICE. “ON AVERAGE, RECIPES CALLED FOR NEARLY FOUR, BUT SOME LACKED SPICES,
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ESPECIALLY IN TEMPERATE COUNTRIES OR IN VEGETARIAN DISHES. OTHERS HAD UP TO 12 SPICES. IN 10 COUNTRIES,
ETHIOPIA, KENYA, GREECE, INDIA, INDONESIA, IRAN, MALAYSIA, MOROCCO, NIGERIA, AND THAILAND, EVERY
MEAT-BASED RECIPE REQUIRED AT LEAST ONE SPICE. IN SCANDINAVIA, ONE-THIRD OF THE RECIPES HAD NO SPICES.
VEGETABLE DISHES ARE ALMOST ALWAYS LESS SPICY THAN MEAT DISHES, A CLUE THAT LEADS SHERMAN AND
HASH (2001) TO ARGUE THAT THE SPICES EVOLVED AS ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS. I AGREE.
BLACK PEPPER AND ONION WERE USED MORE FREQUENTLY (63 AND 65%) THAN GARLIC, 35%, CHILIS, 24%,
LEMON AND LIME JUICE, 23%, PARSLEY, 22%, GINGER, 16%, AND BAY LEAF, 13%. THEN CAME CORIANDER,
CINNAMON, CLOVES, NUTMEG, THYME, PAPRIKA, SWEET PEPPER, CUMIN, CELERY, TURMERIC, ALLSPICE, MUSTARD,
CARDAMOM, SAFFRON, MINT, DILL, OREGANO, BASIL, LEMONGRASS, SESAME, TAMARIND, SAGE, ROSEMARY, ANISE,
MARJORAM, CARAWAY, CAPERS, TARRAGON, JUNIPER, FENUGREEK, HORSERADISH, FENNEL, AND SAVORY (SHERMAN
AND HASH, 2001). THOSE THAT I FAIL TO INCLUDE IN THIS BOOK, I HAVE COVERED EARLIER IN MY CULINARY
HERBS (DUKE, 1985) AND/OR LIVING LIQUEURS (DUKE, 1987). I ANTICIPATE A CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL CULINARY HERBS AS A SEQUEL TO THIS SPICE BOOK, LAMENTING THAT THERE IS NO CLEAR-CUT LINE BETWEEN
THE DEFINITIONS OF SPICE AND CULINARY HERB. BUT ALL ARE MEDICINAL.
HERE I USE STATISTICS MORE APPROPRIATE FOR THE 500TH ANNIVERSARY OF COLUMBUS’ ARRIVAL IN AMERICA.
FOR MORE RECENT STATISTICS, SEE THE USDA WEB SITE: HTTP://WWW.FAS.USDA.GOV/USTRADE
SPICES RANKED ACCORDING TO THE MOST VALUABLE IMPORTS TO THE U.S. ARE:
1. BLACK PEPPER $115 MILLION TROPICAL FRUIT
2. VANILLA 62 TROPICAL FRUIT
3. SESAME 26 SUBTROPICAL SEED
4. CINNAMON (AND CASSIA) 22 TROPICAL BARK
5. CAPSICUM 22 TROPICAL FRUIT
6. NUTMEG AND MACE 12 TROPICAL SEED
7. MUSTARD 9 TEMPERATE SEED
8. OREGANO 7 TEMPERATE SHOOT
9. CAPER 7 SUBTROPICAL BUD
10. SAGE 6 TEMPERATE SHOOT
11. GINGER 5 TROPICAL ROOT
12. CUMIN 4 SUBTROPICAL FRUIT
13. CLOVE 4 TROPICAL BUD
14. POPPY 4 TEMPERATE SEED
SOME VALUABLE SPICES PRODUCED BY THE U.S. ARE:
1. SESAME
2. CAPSICUM
3. MUSTARD
4. OREGANO
5. SAGE
6. POPPY
7. GINGER — HAWAII PRODUCED 3697 MT IN 1989 FROM 67 HARVESTED ACRES
WHEN FIRST APPROACHED ABOUT A LECTURE ON COLUMBUS’ EFFECTS ON THE SPICE TRADE, I DECIDED TO RESTRICT
MY TALK TO SEEDS. BUT THEN I WENT THROUGH THE THEN RECENT VERSION OF U.S. SPICE TRADE (FTEA 1–90).
WHEN YOU CLASSIFY THE PART OF THE PLANT THAT GETS INTO THE SPICE TRADE, THERE ARE FEW REAL SEED, MUSTARD,
NUTMEG, POPPY, AND SESAME AS NOTEWORTHY EXCEPTIONS. AND THEN THERE ARE THOSE “SEEDS” IN THE CARROT
FAMILY, ANISESEED, CARAWAY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, FENNEL, AND THE LIKE, THAT ARE REALLY ONE-SEEDED
FRUITS. JUST A TECHNICALITY; THOSE ARE THE SAME “SEED” I PLANT IF I WANT MORE ANISE, CARAWAY, ETC.
AND POST-COLUMBIAN ACTIVITIES HAVE RESULTED IN BRAZIL CLOSING IN ON INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, AND
INDIA AS A LEADING BLACK PEPPER PRODUCER.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CLOVES, THOUGH NATIVE TO INDO-MALAYSIA, ARE MOSTLY PRODUCED FOR EXPORT BY BRAZIL, MADAGASCAR,
AND TANZANIA. INDONESIA PRODUCES A LOT BUT IS ALSO THE WORLD’S LARGEST CONSUMER. CINNAMON AND
CASSIA ARE STILL MOSTLY PRODUCED FROM THE ASIAN SUBCONTINENT, WITH SOME CINNAMON IN THE SEYCHELLES.
NUTMEGS AND MACE, BOTH FROM THE SAME TREE, COME TO US MOSTLY FROM THEIR NATIVE INDIAN
SUBCONTINENT, BUT GRENADA AND TRINIDAD ARE MAKING SMALL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE U.S. MARKET.
ASIAN TURMERIC IS STILL LARGELY PROVIDED US BY INDIA, BUT LATIN AMERICA IS LARGELY INDEPENDENT
FOR ITS “AZAFRAN.” AMERICA HAS SUPPLANTED ASIA AS THE SOURCE OF CARDAMOMS TO THE U.S.; GUATEMALA
SUPPLIED MORE THAN ANY OTHER PRODUCER TO THE EXPORT MARKET, 3 TO 1. INDIA STILL PRODUCES A LOT, BUT
MOST IS FOR LOCAL CONSUMPTION.
IN THE PAGES THAT FOLLOW, I TABULATE THE FOUR MAJOR PRODUCERS OF EACH OF OUR SPICE IMPORTS,
ITALICIZING THOSE COUNTRIES WHERE THE PLANT IS NOT NATIVE. FIGURES HAVE BEEN VERY GENEROUSLY ROUNDED.
A SUMMARY TABLE OF THE NATIVITY OF THESE FOUR MAIN PRODUCERS OF EACH OF OUR MAIN “SPICE” IMPORTS
FOLLOWS. THESE FIGURES WERE APPLICABLE CA. 1992, 500 YEARS AFTER COLUMBUS DISCOVERED AMERICA.
WHERE AVAILABLE, I HAVE ADDED YEAR 2000 IMPORT STATISTICS FROM FAS, 2002.
SPICE NATIVITY
ALLSPICE NATIVE
ANISE MOSTLY NATIVE
BASIL ALIEN
CAPER NATIVE
CAPSICUM MOSTLY ALIEN
CARAWAY MOSTLY NATIVE
CARDAMOM MOSTLY ALIEN
CASSIA/CINNAMON MOSTLY NATIVE
CELERY SEED MOSTLY ALIEN
CLOVES MOSTLY ALIEN
CORIANDER MOSTLY NATIVE
CUMIN MOSTLY NATIVE
DILL MOSTLY NATIVE
FENNEL MOSTLY NATIVE
GARLIC MOSTLY NATIVE
GINGER MOSTLY ALIEN
LAUREL (BAYLEAF) NATIVE
LICORICE MOSTLY ALIEN (SPECIFICALLY, NOT GENERIC)
MACE MOSTLY NATIVE
MARJORAM MOSTLY NATIVE
MINT MOSTLY NATIVE
MUSTARD MOSTLY ALIEN
NUTMEG MOSTLY NATIVE
ONION ALIEN
OREGANO ALIEN
PARSLEY MOSTLY ALIEN
PEPPER MOSTLY ALIEN
POPPYSEED MOSTLY ALIEN
ROSEMARY NATIVE
SAFFRON MOSTLY ALIEN (AND INCREDIBLE)
SAGE NATIVE
SAVORY NATIVE
SESAME MOSTLY ALIEN
TARRAGON ALIEN
THYME MOSTLY NATIVE
TURMERIC MOSTLY NATIVE
VANILLA MOSTLY ALIEN
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
U.S. SPICE IMPORTS, CERCA
500 YEARS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE, UPDATED FROM MY COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE LECTURES (DUKE,
1991, 1992).
ALLSPICE
NATIVE AMERICAN, ALLSPICE IS STILL MOSTLY PRODUCED IN AMERICA, GRENADA BEING THE MAJOR PRODUCER.
ALLSPICE, OF WHICH I IMPORTED MORE THAN 1000 TONS IN 1989, WORTH NEARLY $2 MILLION, IS ESSENTIALLY
THE DRIED UNRIPE FRUIT OF TROPICAL PIMENTA RACEMOSA, ASSIGNED TO ZEVEN AND ZHUKOVSKY’S MIDDLE
AMERICAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
APPROPRIATELY FIRST IN MY DISCUSSION, THIS IS THE ONLY SPICE EXCLUSIVELY CULTIVATED IN THE WESTERN
HEMISPHERE, AND ONE OF ONLY THREE NATIVE TO AMERICA. AS WITH OTHER COMMODITY GROUPS, LATIN
AMERICA HAS CONTRIBUTED MORE TO THE WORLD FOOD BASKET (ALLSPICE, CAPSICUM, VANILLA) THAN NORTH
AMERICA, WHICH CONTRIBUTED BRIEFLY, ONLY SASSAFRAS, ALSO CALLED CINNAMONWOOD, AND SPICEBUSH,
NAMESAKE OF THE NUTMEG STATE. IN THE JOURNAL OF COLUMBUS’ FIRST VOYAGE (4 NOV. 1492), I READ THAT
COLUMBUS SHOWED KUNA INDIANS OF SAN BLAS PEPPERCORNS AND THEY, BY SIGN LANGUAGE, APPARENTLY
INDICATED THAT THERE WAS A LOT OF IT AROUND. EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS FOUND THIS TREE IN THE WEST INDIES
IN THE 1500S. APPARENTLY, INTRODUCTIONS TO ASIA FAILED TO FLOWER AND CONSEQUENTLY FRUIT, SO INTRODUCTIONS WERE ALL BUT ABANDONED. LONG BEFORE COLUMBUS, MAYA INDIANS USED ALLSPICE IN EMBALMING.
STILL UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE PIPERMANIA, FRANCISCO HERNANDEZ CALLED IT PIPER TABASCI, HAVING
FOUND IT IN TABASCO MEXICO BETWEEN 1571 AND 1577. THAT’S ALSO WHY IT WAS CALLED PIMIENTA, LATER
CORRUPTED TO PIMENTO. AND LIKE PEPPER (PIPER), THE ALLSPICE FRUITS WERE USED TO PRESERVE MEATS ON
LONG VOYAGES. THESE PRESERVATIVE ACTIVITIES ARE DUE TO SOME OF THE AROMATIC AND ANTISEPTIC COMPOUNDS WHICH ABOUND IN ALLSPICE (ANETHOLE, CARYOPHYLLENE, EUGENOL, LINALOOL, PINENE, AND TERPINENE).
ANISE
THIS SEED (1106 TONS WORTH $1.777 MILLION) IS IN REALITY THE FRUIT OF TEMPERATE PIMPINELLA ANISUM,
ASSIGNED TO THE NEAR EASTERN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
FIRST CENTURY ROMANS INGESTED ANISESEED CAKES AFTER FEASTS TO PREVENT INDIGESTION. ANISE IS SAID
TO HAVE HELPED REPAIR LONDON BRIDGE WAY BEFORE COLUMBUS. IN 1305, KING EDWARD I PUT A TOLL ON
ANISE. BY THE TIME OF EDWARD IV, ANISE WAS USED TO PERFUME HIS PERSONAL LINENS. OIL FROM ANISESEED
GIVES MOST OF THE FLAVOR TO LICORICE, AT LEAST IN THE U.S.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1500 MT OF ANISEED WORTH MORE THAN 3 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
JAMAICA 310 TONS WORTH CA. $725,000
HONDURAS 260 TONS WORTH CA. $325,000
MEXICO 240 TONS WORTH CA. $325,000
GUATEMALA 185 TONS WORTH CA. $225,000
TOTAL 1100 TONS WORTH CA. $1,800,000
TURKEY 700 TONS $1,000,000
SPAIN 170 TONS $400,000
CHINA 150 TONS $275,000
HONG KONG 35 TONS $64,000
TOTAL 1100 TONS $1,800,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BASIL
BASIL (1992 TONS WORTH $2.47 MILLION) IS THE DRIED (OR FRESH) LEAVES OF TEMPERATE OCIMUM BASILICUM,
ASSIGNED TO ZEVEN AND ZHUKOVSKY’S INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER OF DIVERSITY, ALTHOUGH I STILL THINK
OF IT AS A MEDITERRANEAN HERB.
BASIL, WITH MARJORAM, MINT, SAGE, SAVORY, AND THYME HAVE LONG BEEN USED SINCE ANCIENT TIME
TO FLAVOR FOODS. DIOSCORIDES EVEN ADDED THAT A LITTLE BASIL WINE WAS GOOD FOR THE EYES. BASIL RIVALS
OREGANO AS A PIZZA HERB AND IS, OF COURSE, INDISPENSABLE TO PESTO. BUT IT CONTAINS ESTRAGOLE, CLOSELY
RELATED TO SAFROLE.
IN 2000, THE US IMPORTED ~3300 MT OF BASIL WORTH CA. 5.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CAPERS
CAPERS (1246 TONS WORTH CA. $7.857) ARE PICKLED FLOWER BUDS OF MEDITERRANEAN CAPPARIS SPINOSA,
ASSIGNED APPROPRIATELY TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY:
KNOWN AS “DESIRE” IN ECCLESIASTES 12, AND STILL TODAY PRODUCED MOSTLY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN,
THIS SPICE IS ONE OF SEVERAL THAT WERE IMPORTANT IN THE BIBLE. OTHER BIBLICAL SPICES INCLUDE
BLACK CUMIN, CASSIA, CINNAMON, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, FENUGREEK, FRANKINCENSE, GALBANUM,
GARLIC, HYSSOP (DEBATABLE), LAUREL, MINT, MUSTARD, MYRRH, MYRTLE, ONION, OREGANO (SENSU LATO),
POPPY, AND SAFFRON.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~ 450 MT OF CAPERS WORTH MORE THAN 1.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CAPSICUMS
CAPSICUMS (22,868 TONS WORTH $42,132.7 MILLION) ARE FRUITS OF SUBTROPICAL CAPSICUM SPECIES, NATIVE
TO LATIN AMERICA. CALIFORNIA ALONE PRODUCED 10,261 TONS OF CAPSICUM WORTH $11 MILLION. CATEGORIZATION SKEWS THE IMPORT DATA.
MEXICO WAS MAIN SOURCE OF “ANAHEIM” AND “ANCO” IMPORTS, IN 1990 PROVIDING 1250 TONS WORTH
$2,350,000.
PAPRIKA:
EGYPT 1800 TONS $1,900,000
ALBANIA 45 TONS $125,000
YUGOSLAVIA 40 TONS $150,000
MEXICO 20 TONS $90,000
TOTAL 2000 TONS $2,500,000
SPAIN 500 TONS $3,500,000
MOROCCO 300 TONS $1,800,000
ITALY 10 TONS $60,000
DENMARK 10 TONS $70,000
TOTAL 1250 TONS $7,900,000
SPAIN 2700 TONS $5,000,000
HUNGARY 950 TONS $1,650,000
TOTAL 4200 TONS $7,500,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER GROUND CAPSICUM:
OTHER UNGROUND CAPSICUMS:
IN 1493, PETER MARTYR REPORTED BACK THAT COLUMBUS HAD BROUGHT BACK “PEPPERS MORE PUNGENT
THAN THAT FROM CAUCASUS.” BY 1650, CAPSICUM CULTIVATION HAD SPREAD TO AFRICA, ASIA, AND EUROPE.
SPECIALIZATION LED TO PAPRIKA IN HUNGARY AND SWEET PEPPERS IN SPAIN, MOVING US BACK INTO THE
REALM OF VEGETABLES.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~21,000 MT OF CAPSICUM PEPPER WORTH ~28 MILLION DOLLARS. AND
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED NEARLY 9000 MT OF PAPRIKA WORTH NEARLY 18 MILLION DOLLARS AND ~1500
MT OF PIMENTO WORTH CA. 5.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CARAWAYS
CARAWAYS (3446 TONS WORTH $2.507 MILLION) ARE RIPE FRUITS OF TEMPERATE CARUM CARVI, SUPPOSEDLY
NATIVE TO THE EUROSIBERIAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~3300 MT OF CARAWAY WORTH NEARLY 3 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CARDAMOMS
CARDAMOMS (164 TONS WORTH $545 THOUSAND) ARE THE DRY WHOLE FRUITS OR DECORTICATED SEED OF TROPICAL
ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM, ASSIGNED TO THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA AND HINDUSTANI CENTERS OF DIVERSITY.
HERE’S A SPICE THAT MOVED TO AMERICA WITH A VENGEANCE.
MEXICO 2700 TONS $1,200,000
PAKISTAN 285 TONS $525,000
INDIA 280 TONS $460,000
CHINA 280 TONS $625,000
TOTAL 4200 TONS $4,000,000
CHINA 3300 TONS $6,500,000
INDIA 3215 TONS $5,575,000
MEXICO 2925 TONS $5,000,000
PAKISTAN 1125 TONS $1,800,000
TOTAL 13,200 TONS $28,000,000
NETHERLANDS 2750 TONS $2,000,000
HUNGARY 255 TONS $200,000
EGYPT 250 TONS $165,000
POLAND 60 TONS $40,000
TOTAL 3500 TONS $2,500,000
GUATEMALA 125 TONS $400,000
COSTA RICA 20 TONS $50,000
INDIA 20 TONS $90,000
MOROCCO 2 TONS $10,000
TOTAL 165 TONS $550,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EARLY REPORTS OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINE MENTION CARDAMOMS FOR DYSURIA AND OBESITY. IT WAS ALREADY
IN GREEK COMMERCE. IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D., ROME IMPORTED CARDAMOM FROM INDIA. IN ALEXANDRIA,
TAXES WERE LEVIED ON INDIAN CARDAMOMS IN A.D. 176. IN ROSENTHAL’S DAY, CARDAMOMS WERE THE THIRD
MOST EXPENSIVE SPICE (THEN $6.00 PER KILO, COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, NOW [1989] $3.23 PER KILO F.O.B. NY)
TOPPED BY SAFFRON (THEN $225/KILO, NOW $100/KG) AND VANILLA (THEN $9.80/KG COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, NOW
$41.65 F.O.B. NY).
AND CARDAMOM COFFEE, KNOWN AS “GAHWA,” WAS A SYMBOL OF HOSPITALITY, SERVED AND RECEIVED
WITH RITUAL. YOU ARE SUPPOSED TO DRINK AT LEAST THREE CUPS, AUDIBLY SLURPING, BEFORE ANY BUSINESS
TRANSPIRES. BEDOUINS ROAST GREEN COFFEE BEANS AND CRUSH THEM IN A BRASS MORTAR AND PESTLE. THEN
GREEN CARDAMOM PODS ARE BROKEN SO THAT THE SEEDS CAN BE DROPPED INTO A POT OF HOT WATER, WITH A
DASH OF SAFFRON OR CLOVES, SUGAR, AND THE GROUND COFFEE. BOIL 2 TO 3 MINUTES, STRAIN, AND SERVE. POOR
SAUDI’S ARE SAID TO PREFER TO BE WITHOUT RICE THAN TO BE WITHOUT CARDAMOMS, PERHAPS BECAUSE IT IS
BELIEVED (1) TO COOL THE BODY DURING EXTREME HEAT, (2) TO HELP DIGESTION, AND, (3) TO BE APHRODISIAC.
NON-ARAB SCANDINAVIANS ARE SAID TO CHEW CARDAMOMS AFTER EXCESSIVE CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL,
HOPING TO DECEIVE THE NOSES OF THEIR SPOUSES.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~325 MT OF CARDAMOMS WORTH NEARLY 3.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CASSIA AND CINNAMON
CASSIA AND CINNAMON (14,796 TONS WORTH PLUS $37.289 MILLION) ARE DRIED BARK OF TROPICAL CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, ASSIGNED TO THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER, AND C. VERUM, ASSIGNED TO THE CHINAJAPAN CENTER. BUT MOST AMERICAN CINNAMON IS CASSIA, AND AROUND 1992, THEY BECAME AGGREGATED
WITH IT IN THE FTEA STATISTICS.
IN EXODUS 30:23–5, THE LORD TOLD MOSES TO USE CINNAMON AND CASSIA ET AL., TO ANOINT THE
TABERNACLE OF THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL. IN 1990, THE DOC AND USDA AGGREGATED CINNAMON AND CASSIA
IN THEIR STATISTICS, SINCE MOST AMERICAN CINNAMON WAS IN FACT THE RELATED SPECIES CASSIA. MOST OF
THE “CINNAMON” PURCHASED IN THE U.S. IS SAID TO BE “CASSIA,” SO PERHAPS I SHOULD TALK ABOUT “CASSIA”
BUNS, “CASSIA” TOAST, AND “CASSIA” TEAS. THE CINNAMON TOAST MY WIFE TAKES FOR UPSET DISTRESS AND
THE CINNAMON TEA SOME PEOPLE TAKE FOR HANGOVERS IS MORE PROBABLY CASSIA. BOTH CASSIA AND CINNAMON
CONTAIN CARMINATIVE COMPOUNDS.
IN 1264 LONDON, CASSIA (FIT FOR COMMONERS, USUALLY CHEAPER THAN CINNAMON, ONCE FIT FOR LORDS)
SOLD FOR 10 SHILLINGS A POUND, CF 12 SHILLINGS FOR SUGAR, 18 SHILLINGS FOR GINGER, AND ONLY 2 SHILLINGS
FOR MORE TEMPERATE CUMIN. IN 1971, ROSENTHAL SAID THE CONTEMPTUOUS “COMMONER” EVALUATION FOR
CASSIA WAS NO LONGER VALID, BUT IN THE LAST YEAR OF SEPARATE RECORD IN FTEA DOCUMENTS (1988),
CASSIA BARK WAS CA. $2.00 A KILO F.O.B. NY, WHILE CINNAMON STILL COMMANDED CLOSER TO $3.00.
SADAM HUSSAIN MAY HAVE BURNED A YEAR’S SUPPLY OF (U.S.) OIL DURING THE GULF WAR. IN HIS GRIEF
OVER THE LOSS OF HIS WIFE, FIDDLING NERO IS SAID TO HAVE BURNED A YEAR’S SUPPLY OF CINNAMON. FRANCE
WAS RECEIVING CINNAMON AS EARLY AS 761, TO BE ASSIGNED TO VARIOUS MONASTERIES. NINTH CENTURY SWISS
CHEFS USED CINNAMON CLOVES AND PEPPER TO SEASON FISH. CINNAMON PLAYED A BIG BAD ROLE IN SRI LANKA’S
HISTORY. AS THE MOST SOUGHT AFTER SPICE IN FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS, IT, WITH THE
BLACK PEPPER, PLAYED A ROLE IN THE COLONIZATION OF CEYLON AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. PORTUGUESE
COLONIALISTS FORCED CEYLONESE TO PAY TRIBUTE WITH CINNAMON BARK IN 1505 WHEN THEY SEIZED IT.
INDONESIA 10,900 TONS WHOLE CASSIA $29,000,000
CHINA 1450 TONS $3,050,000
SRI LANKA 550 TONS $1,900,000
MADAGASCAR 700 TONS $600,000
INDONESIA 165 TONS GROUND CASSIA $425,000
MADAGASCAR 55 TONS $55,000
SRI LANKA 50 TONS $90,000
TOTAL 15,000 TONS $37,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~15,000 MT OF CINNAMON/CASSIA WORTH ~16 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS,
2001).
CELERY SEED
CELERY SEED (2901 TONS WORTH $2.211 MILLION) IS THE FRUIT OF TEMPERATE APIUM GRAVEOLENS, ASSIGNED
TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
WILD CELERY WAS WOVEN INTO SOME GARLANDS FOUND IN EGYPTIAN TOMBS OF THE TWENTIETH DYNASTY.
ROMANS AND GREEKS GREW IT MORE FOR FOOD THAN MEDICINE. IT DOES HAVE CARMINATIVE, HYPOTENSIVE,
AND SEDATIVE ACTIVITIES.
CLOVES
CLOVES (1134 TONS WORTH $2.328 MILLION) ARE DRIED FLOWER BUDS OF TROPICAL SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM,
ASSIGNED TO THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
NATIVE TO THE SPICE ISLANDS, CLOVES ARE MENTIONED IN ORIENTAL LITERATURE OF THE CHINESE HAN
PERIOD. CHINESE COURTIERS, CA.. 2500 B.P., WERE SAID TO HOLD A CLOVE IN THEIR MOUTHS WHEN ADDRESSING
AN EMPEROR. THE CLOVE’S CHINESE NAME MEANT CHICKEN-TONGUE, WHILE ITS FRENCH, PORTUGUESE, AND
SPANISH NAMES IMPLIED NAILS. BY A.D. 176, CLOVES WERE IMPORTED TO ALEXANDRIA, AND THEY WERE WELL
KNOWN IN EUROPE BY THE FOURTH CENTURY. THE PORTUGUESE CONTROLLED THE SPICE ISLANDS FROM 1514
UNTIL 1605, WHEN THE DUTCH EXPELLED THEM. BY 1651, THE DUTCH ADOPTED STRICT MEASURES TO CONTROL
THEIR CLOVE AND NUTMEG MONOPOLIES. ANY PERSON ILLEGALLY GROWING OR TRADING CLOVES WAS KILLED.
WHEN A CHILD WAS BORN IN THE MOLUCAS, A CLOVE TREE WAS PLANTED TO KEEP A ROUGH RECORD OF ITS
AGE. DEATH OF THE TREE WAS A BAD OMEN. YOU CAN IMAGINE WHAT THE NEW DUTCH LAW REQUIRING
DESTRUCTION OF UNAUTHORIZED CLOVE TREES DID FOR THE MOLUCCANS. THE FRENCH BROKE THE DUTCH MONOPOLY BY SMUGGLING SEEDS AND/OR PLANTS TO SOME OF THE FRENCH COLONIES OF BOURBON AND MAURITIUS.
INDONESIANS INVENTED THEIR KRETEKS IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY, MIXING TWO PARTS TOBACCO TO
ONE PART GROUND CLOVES. ALTHOUGH INDONESIA IS STILL A PRODUCER TODAY, MOST OF ITS CLOVES ARE IMPORTED
FOR THE KRETEKS, UNFORTUNATELY FOR THE HEALTH OF OTHER NATIONS. IN ROSENTHAL’S DAY, CA. HALF THE WORLDS
CLOVES WENT INTO INDONESIA KRETEKS.
CONTAINING THE DENTAL ANALGESIC EUGENOL, CLOVES HAVE QUITE A MEDICINAL REPUTATION. USDA’S
RICHARD ANDERSON (AM. HEALTH, NOV. 1989, P. 96) REPORTS THAT BAYLEAF, CINNAMON, CLOVES, AND
TURMERIC ALL CAN TREBLE INSULIN ACTIVITY, HINTING THAT AS LITTLE AS 500 MG MIGHT BE ENOUGH TO HAVE
SOME EFFECT. A TEA OF 500 MG EACH OF THESE SPICES, WITH CORIANDER AND CUMIN, SHOULD BE ENOUGH
TO TREBLE INSULIN ACTIVITY, POSSIBLY HELPING IN LATE-ONSET DIABETES.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1000 MT OF CLOVES WORTH MORE THAN 4 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
INDIA 2800 TONS $2,100,000
CHINA 65 TONS $40,000
EGYPT 14 TONS $7,000
FRANCE 11 TONS $22,000
TOTAL 2900 TONS $2,200,000
MADAGASCAR 380 TONS $750,000
BRAZIL 300 TONS $525,000
INDONESIA 175 TONS $250,000
COMORES 60 TONS $120,000
TOTAL 1150 TONS $2,500,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CORIANDER
CORIANDER (2418 TONS WORTH $1.230 MILLION) IS THE FRUIT OF TEMPERATE CORIANDRUM SATIVUM, ASSIGNED
TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
BOTH CORIANDER AND CUMIN HAVE HYPOGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY IN EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~4000 MT OF CORIANDER WORTH MORE THAN 2 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
CUMIN
CUMIN (4707 TONS WORTH $4.539 MILLION) IS THE FRUIT OF TEMPERATE OR SUBTROPICAL CUMINUM CYMINUM,
ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND ADJACENT CENTERS OF DIVERSITY.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~8000 MT OF CUMIN WORTH ~14.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2001).
DILL
DILL (615 TONS WORTH $525,000), ALTHOUGH REFERRED TO AS DILLWEED (THE HERB) AND DILLSEED (THE FRUIT),
IS MORE APPROPRIATELY CALLED DILLFRUIT AND DILLWEED, FROM TEMPERATE ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS, ASSIGNED
TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND HINDUSTANI CENTERS OF DIVERSITY.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~700 MT OF DILL WORTH MORE THAN 1 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
FENNEL
FENNEL (2810 TONS WORTH $2.964 MILLION) IS REALLY THE FRUIT OF TEMPERATE FOENICULUM VULGARE,
ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
MOROCCO 1175 TONS $630,000
ROMANIA 400 TONS $175,000
CANADA 250 TONS $150,000
ARGENTINA 250 TONS $75,000
TOTAL 2500 TONS $1,250,000
TURKEY 3150 TONS $2,650,000
PAKISTAN 700 TONS $900,000
INDIA 550 TONS $725,000
CHINA 150 TONS $160,000
TOTAL 4700 TONS $4,500,000
INDIA 475 TONS $350,000
EGYPT 45 TONS $50,000
PAKISTAN 30 TONS $15,000
SWEDEN 25 TONS $60,000
TOTAL 625 TONS $550,000
EGYPT 1900 TONS $1,900,000
INDIA 700 TONS $700,000
TURKEY 70 TONS $60,000
TAIWAN 50 TONS $150,000
TOTAL 2800 TONS $3,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~3300 MT OF FENNEL WORTH CA. 3.7 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
GARLIC
GARLIC (3196 TONS WORTH $3.917 MILLION) IS, IN THIS CASE, THE DEHYDRATED BULB OF TEMPERATE AND
SUBTROPICAL ALLIUM SATIVUM, ASSIGNED TO THE CJ, CE, NE CENTERS OF DIVERSITY, BUT CLEARLY IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN IN BIBLICAL TIMES.
FOR DEHYDRATED GARLIC:
GINGER
GINGER (5865 TONS WORTH $6.643 MILLION) IS THE ROOT OR RHIZOME OF TROPICAL ZINGIBER OFFICINALE,
ASSIGNED TO THE HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY. LATIN AMERICANS GROW MUCH OF THEIR OWN GINGER,
INDONESIA, THAILAND AND TAIWAN, BEING THE MAJOR PRODUCERS. HAWAII PRODUCED NEARLY 4000 TONS IN
1989, WORTH NEARLY 6 MILLION DOLLARS. FIJI WAS THE MAJOR SOURCE OF U.S. IMPORTS, FOLLOWED BY CHINA
AND BRAZIL. FOR WHOLE GINGER, MAJOR SOURCES ARE:
CONFUCIUS, CA. 2500 YEARS B.C., MENTIONED THE CHIANG, STILL IMPORTANT IN CHINESE COOKERY AND
MEDICINE. BY THE SECOND CENTURY A.D., GINGER WAS IMPORTED TO ALEXANDRIA. IT WAS MENTIONED IN
ANGLO-SAXON LEECH BOOKS. SINCE LIVE RHIZOMES WERE IMPORTED FROM THE EAST INDIES, IT WAS LOGICAL
THAT GINGER WOULD BE ONE OF THE FIRST POST-COLUMBIAN INTRODUCTIONS TO THE WEST INDIES.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~19,000 MT OF GROUND GINGER WORTH ~15 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2001).
LAUREL
LAUREL (1701 TONS WORTH $3.061 MILLION) IS THE BAYLEAF OF MEDITERRANEAN LAURUS NOBILIS, APPROPRIATELY ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
MYTHOLOGY GENERATED THE GREEK NAME FOR THE PLANT DAPHNE. APOLLO WAS SAID TO HAVE RELENTLESSLY PURSUED THE UNWILLING NYMPH DAPHNE UNTIL MERCIFUL GODS TURNED HER INTO A LAUREL TREE. AT
THE OLYMPIC GAMES, FOUNDED CA. 2775 B.P., CHAMPIONS WERE CROWNED WITH LAURELS. OUR BACCALAUREATE MEANS NOTHING MORE THAN LAUREL BERRIES (MORE APPROPRIATELY DRUPES), RATHER SUGGESTIVE
CHINA 2750 TONS $3,350,000
MEXICO 200 TONS $300,000
GUATEMALA 90 TONS $80,000
HONG KONG 80 TONS $100,000
TOTAL 3250 TONS $4,000,000
FIJI 1500 TONS $1,500,000
CHINA 1100 TONS $1,100,000
BRAZIL 950 TONS $1,050,000
INDIA 500 TONS $500,000
INDIA ALSO PROVIDED 280 TONS GROUND GINGER WORTH $100,000.
TOTAL GINGER 6000 TONS $6,750,000
SPAIN 750 TONS $1,750,000
TURKEY 650 TONS $875,000
MOROCCO 125 TONS $170,000
FRANCE 50 TONS $170,000
TOTAL 1750 TONS $3,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OF AMERICAN SASSAFRAS DRUPES. ROMAN LEGIONAIRES, IN ATONEMENT, WIPED BLOOD FROM THEIR SWORDS
WITH LAUREL LEAVES.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~110 MT OF BAYLEAF WORTH CA. 230 THOUSAND DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
LICORICE
LICORICE IS THE ROOT OF TEMPERATE SPECIES OF THE GENUS GLYCYRRHIZA, MOST OFTEN GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA,
ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND EUROSIBERIAN CENTERS OF DIVERSITY. NINETY PERCENT OF OUR IMPORTS
GO INTO FLAVORING TOBACCO, HENCE, I TREAT IT AS SPICE.
NOTE HOW MUCH BIGGER AFGHANISTAN IS TODAY THAN PAKISTAN. IN 1985–1986, THEIR ROLES WERE
REVERSED.
MACE
MACE (294 TONS WORTH $1.863 MILLION) IS THE ARIL OF THE SEED OF TROPICAL MYRISTICA FRAGRANS,
ASSIGNED TO THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER OF DIVERSITY. NUTMEG, Q.V., IS A DIFFERENT PART OF THE
SAME FRUIT.
NATIVE TO THE SPICE ISLANDS, NUTMEG REACHED CONSTANTINOPLE COMMERCE CA. A.D. 540. ONCE AGAIN
THE ARABS INTERJECTED THEMSELVES AND SHOWED THE ORIGINS IN MYTH. NOTE THE DUTCH AND FRENCH
CONNECTION ABOVE. AS WITH CLOVES, THE DUTCH ATTAINED THE MONOPOLY ON NUTMEG AND MACE SHORTLY
AFTER DRIVING OFF THE PORTUGUESE. THEN, BY SUBTERFUGE, FRENCH EXPLORERS ARRIVED BACK IN FRANCE IN
1770 WITH A LOT OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS OF CLOVE AND NUTMEGS FROM THE SPICE ISLANDS. PLANTS FOUND
THEIR WAY TO BOURBON, CAYENNE, AND SYECHELLES. NUTMEGS WERE INTRODUCED TO ZANZIBAR IN 1818
FROM MAURITIUS OR REUNION.
MARJORAM
MARJORAM (1988 IMPORTS OF 380 TONS WORTH $481,500) IS FOLIAGE OF TEMPERATE ORIGANUM MAJORANA, ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. DATA REPORTING WAS DISCONTINUED. 1988
IMPORTS WERE:
CHINA 5000 TONS $3,000,000
AFGHANISTAN 2650 TONS $1,150,000
TURKEY 1120 TONS $900,000
PAKISTAN 425 TONS $250,000
TOTAL (1988) 9500 TONS $5,500,000
INDONESIA 175 TONS $1,500,000
SINGAPORE 90 TONS $250,000
FRANCE 15 TONS $75,000
NETHERLANDS 10 TONS $25,000
TOTAL 300 TONS $2,000,000
EGYPT 350 TONS $420,000
FRANCE 20 TONS $30,000
CANADA 12 TONS $12,000
INDONESIA 4 TONS $3000
TOTAL 400 TONS $500,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MINT (LEAVES)
MINT LEAVES (1988 IMPORTS OF 171.8 TONS WORTH CA. $580,000) ARE LEAVES OF VARIOUS TEMPERATE AND
SUBTROPICAL MENTHA HYBRIDS, ESPECIALLY MENTHA X PIPERITA, ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND
EUROSIBERIAN CENTERS OF DIVERSITY. (BUT, IN 1989, THE U.S. PRODUCED 3017 TONS OF PEPPERMINT OIL
WORTH $86 MILLION AND 1510 TONS SPEARMINT OIL WORTH $25.6 MILLION.) DATA REPORTING HAS BEEN
DISCONTINUED ON IMPORTED MINT LEAF FOLLOWING 1988, DATA FOR WHICH FOLLOW:
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED NEARLY 400 MT OF MINTS WORTH MORE THAN 1 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS,
2002).
MUSTARD (SEED)
MUSTARD SEED (53,479 TONS WORTH $21.858 MILLION IN 1989) IS THE FIRST TRUE SEED ON THE LIST, FROM
TEMPERATE SPECIES OF BRASSICA AND SINAPIS. THE NEW “CANOLA” VARIETY PUTS THIS OLD WORLD SPICE IN
THE HANDS OF CANADA, AS FAR AS UNPROCESSED SEED ARE CONCERNED.
BUT WHEN IT COMES TO PREPARED AND/OR GROUND MUSTARD:
BY 2000, WHOLE MUSTARD SEED WAS THE TOP-VOLUME SPICE IMPORT TO THE U.S., AT CA. 51,000 MT.
PREPARED MUSTARD WAS IMPORTED AT ~7000 MT WORTH NEARLY 9 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
NUTMEG
NUTMEG (1915 TONS WORTH $11.073 MILLION) IS THE SEED OF TROPICAL MYRISTICA FRAGRANS, ASSIGNED TO
THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
GERMANY 75 TONS $375,000
EGYPT 65 TONS $65,000
TURKEY 20 TONS $25,000
TAIWAN 6 TONS $100,000
TOTAL 175 TONS $600,000
CANADA 46,500 TONS $12,500,000
CANADA 3425 TONS $4,800,000
FRANCE 2500 TONS $3,500,000
GERMANY 300 TONS $450,000
THAILAND 130 TONS $150,000
JAPAN 50 TONS $275,000
TOTAL 53,000 TONS $21,500,000
INDONESIA 1600 TONS $9,500,000
L & W ISLANDS 100 TONS $600,000
INDIA 70 TONS $300,000
FRANCE 60 TONS $350,000
TOTAL 1900 TONS $11,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1.900 MT OF NUTMEG WORTH MORE THAN 12 MILLION DOLLARS, AND
NEARLY 200 TONS OF MACE WORTH CA. 1.8 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
ONIONS (DEHYDRATED)
ONIONS (1371 TONS WORTH $1.115 MILLION) ARE THE BULBS OF TEMPERATE AND SUBTROPICAL ALLIUM CEPA,
ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND CENTRAL ASIAN CENTERS OF DIVERSITY.
OREGANO
OREGANO (4405 TONS WORTH $6.545 MILLION) IS DRIED LEAF OF SEVERAL MOSTLY TEMPERATE SPECIES, NOT
ALL IN THE SAME FAMILIES. MOST PEOPLE ASSOCIATE OREGANO WITH ORIGANUM VULGARE, A TEMPERATE SPECIES
ASSIGNED TO THE EUROSIBERIAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY BUT CLEARLY AT HOME IN A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~360 MT OF OREGANO WORTH MORE THAN 900,000 DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
PARSLEY (ADVANCED)
PARSLEY (268 TONS WORTH $561,000 IN 1989) IS THE DRIED LEAF OF TEMPERATE PETROSELINUM SATIVUM,
ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. SEPARATE STATISTICS WERE ABANDONED FOR WHOLE
UNGROUND PARSLEY FOLLOWING 1988 WHEN IMPORTS WERE:
ADVANCED PARSLEY SUCH AS PARSLEY FLAKES WERE IN 1989.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1700 MT OF PARSLEY WORTH NEARLY 6 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
MEXICO 1200 TONS $850,000
HUNGARY 70 TONS $150,000
GERMANY 60 TONS $30,000
YUGOSLAVIA 25 TONS $50,000
TOTAL 1375 TONS $1,115,000
TURKEY 2100 TONS $3,200,000
MEXICO 1550 TONS $1,900,000
GREECE 310 TONS $525,000
ISRAEL 200 TONS $550,000
TOTAL 4400 TONS $6,500,000
MEXICO 750 TONS $550,000
ISRAEL 75 TONS $200,000
CANADA 25 TONS $20,000
TURKEY 10 TONS $25,000
TOTAL (1988) 975 TONS $1,100,000
ISRAEL 140 TONS $340,000
MEXICO 80 TONS $100,000
GERMANY 30 TONS $80,000
BRAZIL 10 TONS $15,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PEPPER (BLACK AND WHITE)
PEPPER (37,753 TONS WORTH $95.211 MILLION) IS THE DRIED FRUIT OF TROPICAL PIPER NIGRUM, ASSIGNED TO
THE HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
BLACK PEPPER:
WHITE PEPPER:
PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981) NOTE THAT PEPPER WAS ONE OF THE FIRST ORIENTAL SPICES INTRODUCED TO
EUROPE. THEOPHRASTUS (CA. 2300 B.P.) ALLUDED TO BLACK PEPPER AND LONG PEPPER. AT THE TIME OF CHRIST,
PEPPER PROBABLY TRAVELED FROM INDIA THROUGH THE PERSIAN GULF TO CHARAX, OR UP THROUGH THE RED
SEA TO EGYPT, THENCE OVERLAND TO ALEXANDRIA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN. BY A.D., CUSTOMS WAS LEVIED
ON LONG PEPPER AND WHITE PEPPER BUT NOT BLACK PEPPER. HINDU COLONISTS TOOK PEPPER TO JAVA. IN HIS
1298 MEMOIRS, MARCO POLO DESCRIBES PEPPER CULTIVATION IN JAVA AND MENTIONS CHINESE SAILING
VESSELS TRADING IN PEPPER. BY THE MIDDLE AGES, PEPPER WAS BIG IN EUROPE, TO PRESERVE AND SEASON
MEATS, AND, WITH OTHER SPICES, “TO OVERCOME THE ODOURS OF BAD FOOD AND UNWASHED HUMANITY.”
TOWARD THE END OF THE TENTH CENTURY, ENGLAND REQUIRED EASTERLINGS, EARLY GERMAN SPICE TRADERS IN
ENGLAND, TO PAY TRIBUTE INCLUDING 10 POUNDS OF PEPPER FOR THE PRIVILEGE OF TRADING WITH THE BRITS.
UNDER HENRY II, 1180, A PEPPERER’S GUILD WAS FOUNDED IN LONDON. THIS GAVE WAY TO THE SPICER’S
GUILD AND FINALLY, IN 1429, THE PRESENT GROCER’ COMPANY. THE PEPPERERS AND SPICERS WERE THE
FORERUNNERS OF THE APOTHECARIES, EMPHASIZING THE “VITAL ROLE THAT SPICES FORMERLY PLAYED IN OCCIDENTAL
MEDICINE.” THERE’S A RETURN TO THE SPICERACK FOR MEDICINE, ESPECIALLY WITH CAPSICUM, CLOVES, GARLIC,
GINGER, LICORICE, ONIONS AND TURMERIC.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED 43,500 MT OF BLACK PEPPER WORTH ~205 MILLION DOLLARS AND 7300
MT OF WHITE PEPPER WORTH ~37 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2001).
POPPYSEED
POPPYSEED (4160 TONS WORTH $3.718 MILLION) IS IN REALITY A SEED, THE SAME AS THE TEMPERATE OPIUM
POPPY, PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM, EARLY MOVED ABOUT BUT ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN, CENTRAL ASIAN,
AND NEAR EASTERN CENTERS OF DIVERSITY.
INDONESIA 11,000 TONS $28,000,000
BRAZIL 11,000 TONS $21,500,000
MALAYSIA 6750 TONS $19,000,000
INDIA 1275 TONS $3,700,000
TOTAL 32,000 TONS $77,000,000
INDONESIA 5275 TONS $16,000,000
SINGAPORE 90 TONS $325,000
MALAYSIA 60 TONS $200,000
CHINA 40 TONS $100,000
TOTAL 5500 TONS $17,000,000
NETHERLANDS 1650 TONS $1,450,000
AUSTRALIA 1600 TONS $1,450,000
SPAIN 625 TONS $500,000
TURKEY 250 TONS $200,000
TOTAL 4200 TONS $4,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CRETANS USED OPIUM MEDICINALLY AS EARLY AS 3400 B.P., AND IT WAS IN USE BY EARLY EGYPTIANS AND
SUMERIANS, APPARENTLY. BY THE TIME OF MOHAMMED (A.D. 570–632), ITS MEDICINAL AND NARCOTIC
PROPERTIES WERE APPRECIATED BY THE ARABIANS. ITS NARCOTIC USAGE MOVED TO INDIA, THENCE CHINA.
ANTAGONISTIC ROLES OF BRITISH SMUGGLERS, AND CHINESE OFFICIALS, TRYING TO CURB THE SCOURGE OF MILLIONS,
ENDED UP IN THE OPIUM WARS OF 1840 AND 1855. THEN MORPHINE AND HEROIN RECIPROCATED WITHIN A
CENTURY, CAUSING ADDICTION IN THOUSANDS OF CAUCASIANS, TO BE SUPPLANTED, AT LEAST IN PART, IN THE
1980S BY COCAINE.
POPPYSEEDS WERE USED FOR FOOD AND OIL TWO MILLENNIA BEFORE CHRIST IN EGYPT, AND THE PLANT
NOW GROWS FROM 55° N IN RUSSIA TO 40° S IN ARGENTINA. HERE I SEE AUSTRALIA CHALLENGING ANOTHER
NEW DUTCH MONOPOLY.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~5300 MT OF POPPYSEED WORTH NEARLY 4 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
ROSEMARY
ROSEMARY (1988 IMPORTS OF 810 TONS WORTH $682,800) IS THE AROMATIC FOLIAGE OF THE CLIMATICALLY
MEDITERRANEAN SHRUB, ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS, OF THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. ON THE LAST
YEAR OF RECORD (1988), IMPORTS WERE:
IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D., PLINY ASSIGNED ALL SORTS OF MEDICINAL CLAIMS TO ROSEMARY, HOME OF MORE
THAN A DOZEN ANTIOXIDANT AND CHEMOPREVENTIVE COMPOUNDS. IT IS ONE OF THE MAIN HERBS IN THE NCI
DESIGNER FOOD PROGRAM TO PREVENT CANCER, WITH CAPSICUM, FLAXSEED, AND LICORICE.
ALREADY IN ELEVENTH CENTURY ENGLISH HERBALS, ROSEMARY HAD MOVED FAST, WITHOUT COLUMBUS.
SAFFRON
SAFFRON (34 TONS WORTH $3.286 MILLION) REPRESENTS THE STIGMATA OF THE FLOWERS OF MEDITERRANEAN
CROCUS SATIVUS, ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN AND NEAR EASTERN CENTERS OF DIVERSITY. IMPORTS IN
1989, THE FIRST YEAR RECORDED SEPARATELY BY FAS, WERE:
OBVIOUSLY, THERE IS SOMETHING WRONG WITH THE ACCOUNTING ABOVE. SPAIN IS A CLASSIC SUPPLIER,
AND I BELIEVE THE PRICE THERE IS CORRECT. IF ANYONE IS BUYING SAFFRON AT LESS THAN $1000 A TON AS
THE FIGURES ABOVE INDICATE, IT PROBABLY ISN’T SAFFRON, POSSIBLY AZAFRAN OR TURMERIC. WHILE AZAFRAN
IS THE SPANISH NAME FOR TURMERIC IN LATIN AMERICA, WHERE TURMERIC IS COMMON AND SAFFRON IS
NOT, ZA’FARAN WAS THE ARABIC WORD FOR YELLOW. TRADITIONALLY, SAFFRON HAS BEEN THE WESTERN FOOD
COLORANT CORRESPONDING TO TURMERIC IN THE EAST. COLUMBUS MAY HAVE CHANGED ALL THAT, IF I CAN
BELIEVE ALL THE FTEA STATISTICS.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~14.3 MT OF SAFFRON WORTH NEARLY 6 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
SPAIN 450 TONS $400,000
FRANCE 175 TONS $125,000
YUGOSLAVIA 90 TONS $70,000
PORTUGAL 60 TONS $55,000
TOTAL 800 TONS $675,000
PACIFIC ISLANDS 15 TONS $14,000
CHINA 10 TONS $7200
SPAIN 8 TONS $3,000,000
TOTAL 34 TONS $3,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SAGE
SAGE (2044 TONS WORTH $6.833 MILLION) REPRESENTS LEAVES OF TEMPERATE SALVIA OFFICINALIS, ANOTHER
CLIMATICALLY MEDITERRANEAN HERB ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY AND SECONDARILY
TO THE INDOCHINA-INDONESIA CENTER.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~2500 MT SAGE WORTH CA. 4.5 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
SAVORY
SAVORY DER BOHNENKRAUT REPRESENTS FOLIAGE OF SUMMER SAVORY, SATUREJA HORTENSIS, OR WINTER
SAVORY, SATUREJA MONTANA, BOTH ASSIGNED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. ON THE LAST YEAR
OF RECORD (1988), I IMPORTED ONLY FROM:
SESAME
SESAME (40,514 TONS WORTH 39.962 MILLION) IS TRULY A SEED OF SUBTROPICAL SESAMUM INDICUM, ASSIGNED
TO THE AFRICAN AND HINDUSTANI CENTERS OF DIVERSITY AND EARLY IN THE CHINA-JAPAN CENTER.
MUCH OF OUR IMPORTED SESAME SEED END UP IN THE HAMBURGER ROLLS.
HERODOTUS TELLS US THAT SESAME SAVED SEVERAL INNOCENT BOYS FROM BECOMING EUNUCHS. CORINTHIANS
WERE SENDING 300 BOYS TO AYATES, WHO WERE HUSTLED INTO A TEMPLE EN ROUTE BY SYMPATHETIC CITIZENS.
FORBIDDEN FROM ENTERING THE TEMPLE, THE CORINTHIANS CUT OFF THE BOYS FOOD SUPPLIES. BUT THEIR SAVIORS
SAVED THEM WITH SESAME CAKES.
BY 2000, SESAME IMPORTS WERE 49,000 MT WORTH NEARLY 55 MILLION DOLLARS.
TARRAGON
TARRAGON IS THE FOLIAGE OF THE WARM TEMPERATE HERB, ARTEMISIA DRACUNCULUS, ASSIGNED TO THE CENTRAL
ASIAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. ON THE LAST YEAR OF RECORD (1988), MAJOR U.S. IMPORTS WERE:
YUGOSLAVIA 1000 TONS $3,500,000
ALBANIA 700 TONS $2,500,000
TURKEY 150 TONS $250,000
GREECE 50 TONS $125,000
TOTAL 2000 TONS $7,000,000
YUGOSLAVIA 145 TONS $55,000
FRANCE 50 TONS $50,000
MEXICO 27,000 TONS $27,000,000
GUATEMALA 3800 TONS $4,000,000
SALVADOR 3000 TONS $3,000,000
INDIA 2700 TONS $2,500,000
TOTAL 40,000 TONS $40,000,000
FRANCE 30 TONS $350,000
NETHERLANDS 11 TONS $50,000
NEW ZEALAND 7 TONS $200,000
ISRAEL 6 TONS $25,000
TOTAL 60 TONS $625,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THYME
CRUDE THYME WAS AGGREGATED, STRANGELY, WITH THE LAUREL OR BAY LEAF ABOVE FOR 1989. PROCESSED THYME
(71 TONS WORTH $123,000) IS THE LEAF OF CLIMATICALLY MEDITERRANEAN THYMUS VULGARIS, APPROPRIATELY
REFERRED TO THE MEDITERRANEAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY. ON THE LAST YEAR OF RECORD (1988), CRUDE THYME
IMPORTS TO THE U.S. WERE:
ADVANCED THYME (1989):
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1900 MT OF THYME WORTH ONLY ABOUT 500,000 DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
TURMERIC
TURMERIC (2147 TONS WORTH $1.807 MILLION) IS THE RHIZOME OF TROPICAL CURCUMA LONGA, ASSIGNED TO
THE HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
SOME SCHOLARS SUGGEST THAT USE OF TURMERIC IN MAGICAL RITES INTENDED TO PRODUCE FERTILITY BECAME
SO ENTRENCHED THAT TURMERIC MOVED WITH EARLY HINDUS TO THE “HINDUIZED KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST
ASIA,” QUOTED IN MARCO POLO RECORDS, CHINA IN 1280. TURMERIC REACHED EAST AFRICA IN THE EIGHTH
CENTURY AND WEST AFRICA IN THE THIRTEENTH. IT REACHED JAMAICA IN 1783.
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~2400 MT OF TURMERIC WORTH NEARLY THREE MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
VANILLA
VANILLA (1107 TONS WORTH $46.125 MILLION) BEANS AREN’T BEANS, ALTHOUGH THEY ARE SEED PODS OF
TROPICAL VANILLA PLANIFOLIA, ASSIGNED TO THE SOUTH AMERICAN CENTER OF DIVERSITY.
SPAIN 850 TONS $1,800,000
MOROCCO 50 TONS $40,000
JAMAICA 30 TONS $200,000
FRANCE 20 TONS $55,000
TOTAL 950 TONS $2,000,000
JAMAICA 23 TONS $84,000
MOROCCO 17 TONS $12,000
LEBANON 16 TONS $10,000
JORDAN 9 TONS $6000
TOTAL 70 TONS $125,000
INDIA 1900 TONS $1,600,000
CHINA 70 TONS $35,000
COSTA RICA 45 TONS $50,000
PERU 45 TONS $25,000
TOTAL 2150 TONS $1,800,000
INDONESIA 525 TONS $11,000,000
MALAGASY 425 TONS $25,000,000
COMORES 100 TONS $7,500,000
MEXICO 15 TONS $850,000
TOTAL 1100 TONS $46,000,000
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TRULY AN AMERICAN RAIN FOREST SPECIES, VANILLA MIGHT BE SUGGESTED AS AN EXTRACTIVE RESERVE
CANDIDATE. VANILLA CAN BE HARVESTED RENEWABLY FROM TROPICAL AGROFORESTRY SCENARIOS, ALTHOUGH HEAVY
SHADE REDUCES YIELDS. IN SPITE OF THE PUBLISHED THREATS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY, ARTIFICIAL VANILLIN AS A
BYPRODUCT OF THE FOREST INDUSTRY (COULD BE A TROPICAL FOREST AS WELL AS A TEMPERATE FOREST), AND VANILLA
FROM TISSUE CULTURE, THE NATURAL VANILLA HAS NOT BEEN SUPPLANTED FOR SOME USAGES.
NATIVE AMERICAN VANILLA IS MUCH PRODUCED ABROAD NOW, INDONESIA RECENTLY REPLACING MADAGASCAR AS THE “LARGEST SUPPLIER OF THE U.S. MARKET” (DULL, 1990). RECENT SURVEYS SUGGEST THAT, OF AN
ESTIMATED 400 MILLION GALLONS OF VANILLA (STILL OUR MOST POPULAR FLAVOR) ICE CREAM, 20–25% IS ALL
NATURAL, 40–50% IS VANILLA FLAVORED, AND 25–35% IS ARTIFICIALLY FLAVORED. ICE-CREAM CONTINUES TO BE
THE LARGEST USE OF NATURAL VANILLA, AT SLIGHTLY LESS THAN HALF THE MARKET. I HAVE HEARD PEOPLE SPECULATE
THAT SYNTHETIC WILL REPLACE THE NATURAL. BUT DULL (1990) SAYS, “THE CONTINUING TREND TOWARD NATURAL
FLAVORINGS IN FOOD PRODUCTS IS KEEPING DEMAND FOR VANILLA BEANS STEADY, DESPITE STRONG COMPETITION
FROM SYNTHETIC FLAVORINGS LIKE VANILLIN.” I, TOO, HAVE HEARD IT SAID THAT, MORE AND MORE, AMERICANS
ARE DEMANDING NATURALS RATHER THAN SYNTHETICS—FOR FLAVORS, FOOD COLORANTS, ANTIOXIDANTS AND PRESERVATIVES, EXTENDERS AND THICKENERS, AND SOMETIMES EVEN MEDICINES AND PESTICIDES. IF THIS TREND
CONTINUES, IT BODES WELL FOR EXTRACTIVE RESERVES.
ON THE OTHER HAND, IF THE 1988–1989 TREND CONTINUES FOR VANILLA, THINGS ARE NOT SO CHEERFUL;
BIOTECHNOLOGY MAY BE TAKING ITS TOLL. HERE ARE THE TONNAGE AND DOLLAR FIGURES (EXCLUDING BELGIUM/
LUXEMBURG MIDDLE MEN):
THE 1107 TONS IS JUST ABOUT 10% OFF THE 1988 FIGURE OF 1214 TONS. I SHOULD WATCH THE FIGURES
IN 1991. YOKOYAMA ET AL. (1988) GIVE FIGURES FOR U.S. IMPORTS FOR 1981–1986:
IN 2000, THE U.S. IMPORTED ~1300 MT OF VANILLA WORTH NEARLY 44 MILLION DOLLARS (FAS, 2002).
1988 1989
MT $1,000 MT $1,000
COMOROS ISLANDS 184.9 12,694 107.2 7502
FRENCH POLYNESIA 3.1 215 9.0 430
INDONESIA 423.3 8282 526.5 11,073
MADAGASCAR 576.5 39,841 420.7 24,652
MEXICO 10.2 460 15.6 825
OTHER PACIFIC ISLES 7.7 426 28.4 1,643
TOTALS 1214.7 61,918 1107.4 46,125
IMPORTS
VALUE (C.I.F.) ( = COST,
INSURANCE, AND FREIGHT)
YEAR MT $ MILLION
1981 642 32
1982 886 47
1983 979 53
1984 839 51
1985 745 49
1986 1003 60
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ABBREVIATIONS
FULL REFERENCE CITATIONS, IN THEIR PROPER ALPHABETICAL (BY AUTHOR) SEQUENCES, WILL BE FOUND UNDER
REFERENCES. MANY OF OUR PRIMARY REFERENCE CITATIONS FOLLOW THE CONSISTENT SYSTEM (ABBREVIATION,
VOLUME, PAGE) FORMAT. THESE ARE MORE MEANINGFUL TO US, THE COMPILERS, THAN THE PMID ABSTRACT
NUMBER, E.G., EB, OR JE, OR PR FOLLOWED BY A NUMBER THEN A COLON THEN ANOTHER NUMBER, ALWAYS
MEANS ECONOMIC BOTANY, JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY, OR JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH
RESPECTIVELY, FOLLOWED BY THE VOLUME NUMBER:PAGE NUMBER.
THE MAJOR REFERENCES IN THE BODY OF THIS BOOK ARE INDICATED BY CONCISE AND CONSISTENT THREELETTER ABBREVIATIONS. YOU WILL FIND THE SHORT EXPLANATION IN THE ALPHABETICAL SEQUENCE FOR THE OFTUSED THREE-LETTER ABBREVIATIONS FOR OUR MAJOR REFERENCES UNDER REFERENCE ABBREVIATIONS. MANY
PRIMARY SOURCES ARE OFTEN CITED VIA THE PMID INDEX, WHICH IN THIS BOOK IS INDICATED BY X FOLLOWED
DIRECTLY BY THE PUBMED SERIAL NUMBER. EVEN FOR THE $3000 WORTH OF JOURNALS TO WHICH I SUBSCRIBE,
I CAN USUALLY FIND THE PUBMED CITATION IN THE SAME WEEK THAT THE JOURNAL GETS MY CITATION.
CONVENTIONAL ABBREVIATIONS ARE HERE UNDER ABBREVIATIONS. SO THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF CITATIONS,
COMPACTLY SQUEEZED INTO THE ALL IMPORTANT ACTIVITIES AND INDICATIONS PARAGRAPHS AND GENEROUSLY
SPRINKLED ELSEWHERE.
AA ARACHIDONIC ACID
ABS ABSTRACT
ACAT ACYL-COA: CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE
ACE ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME
ACHE ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE
ADD ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER
ADR ADVERSE DRUG REACTION
AFG IN AFGHANISTAN, AS BASED ON KAB
AGE AGED GARLIC EXTRACT
AHH ARYLHYDROCARBON HYDROXYLASE
AHP AMERICAN HERBAL PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION
AIL DUKE’S COMPUTERIZED AILS FILE, SOURCE
OF THE GREEN PHARMACY, ETC.; SOON
TO BE ONLINE
AITC ALLYLISOTHIOCYANATE
ALA ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID
AP-1 ACTIVATION PROTEIN-1
AMP ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE
APA AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION
APB AS-PURCHASED BASIS
APP AMYLOID PRECURSOR
ARC ALOE RESEARCH COUNCIL
ATP ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
B[A]P BENZO[A]PYRENE
BAL BALUCHISTAN, AS BASED ON KAB
BCG BACILLUS CALMETTE-GUERIN
BHA BUTYLATED HYDROXYANISOLE
BHT BUTYLATED HYDROXYTOLUENE
BP BEFORE PRESENT
BPC BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA
BPH BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERTROPHY
BUN BLOOD UREA NITROGEN
CAM CELL ADHESION MOLECULE
CAMP CYCLIC ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE
CDC CENTER FOR DISEASE CONTROL
CF COMPARE WITH
CFS CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME
CHD CORONARY HEART DISEASE
CHD CHILD
CKN CHICKEN
CNS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
COM COMMERCIAL
COMT CATECHOL-O-METHYL-TRANSFERASE
COPD CHRONIC OBSESSIVE PULMONARY
DISORDER
CORP CORPORATION
COX CYCLOOXYGENASE
COX-I CYCLOOXYGENASE INHIBITOR
(SOMETIMES COX-1 OR COX-2)
CP CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE
CV CULTIVAR
CVI CHRONIC VENOUS INSUFFICIENCY
DGL DEGLYCYRRHIZINATED LICORICE
DHT DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DIM DITHYMOQUINONE
DMBA 7,12-DIMETHYLBENZ[A]ANTHRACENE
(A CARCINOGEN)
DML DERMAL
DOC DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
EBV EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS
ED50 EFFECTIVE DOSE AT WHICH 50% OF SUBJECTS ARE “CURED,” “EFFECTED,”
“AFFECTED,” OR “ALTERED”
E.G. FOR EXAMPLE
EO ESSENTIAL OIL
EPA EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID
EPO EVENING PRIMROSE OIL
ERT ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY
ETC. ET CETERA
ETP ETOPOSIDE
EXT EXTRACT
F FOLKLORE, NOT YET SUBSTANTIATED
FDA FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION
FT FITOTERAPIA
FRG FROG
G GRAM
GA GLYCYRRHETINIC ACID
GABA GAMMA-AMINO-BUTYRIC ACID
GC GARCINIA CAMBOGIA
GERD GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE
GFG GREEN FARMACY GARDEN
GI GASTROINTESTINAL
GLA GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID
GMO GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM
GPG GUINEA PIG
GST GLUTATHIONE S-TRANSFERASE
GTF GLUCOSYL-TRANSFERASE
H (AS A SCORE FOR AN ACTIVITY OR INDICATION)
HOMEOPATHIC
H2O2 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
HCA HYDROXYCITRIC ACID
HCN HYDROCYANIC ACID
HDR HERBAL DESK REFERENCE; ONLINE VERSION UNDER MY MEDICAL BOTANY SYLLABUS (MBS)
HFR HUMAN FATALITY REPORTED
HLE HUMAN LEUKOCYTE ELASTASE
HMG HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARATE
HMN HUMAN
HR HOUR
HRT HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY
IAR INTRAARTERIAL
IBD INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE
IBS IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME
IC INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION
ICMR INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH
ID50 INHIBITORY DOSE AT WHICH 50% OF ACTIVITY IS INHIBITED
IGE IMMUNOGLOBULIN-E
IGS INTRAGASTRIC
IHL INHALATION
IL INTERLEUKIN
IMS INTRAMUSCULAR
INC INCORPORATED
IND INTRADERMAL
INF INFUSION
INOS INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE
IPR INTRAPERITONEAL
ITH INTRATHECAL
IVN INTRAVENOUS
LD50 LETHAL DOSE AT WHICH 50% OF EXPERIMENTAL POPULATION IS KILLED
LDLO LOWEST REPORTED LETHAL DOSE
LF LEAF
LTR LONG TERMINAL REPEAT
L LITER
MAOI MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR
MDR MULTIDRUG RESISTANT
MG MILLIGRAM
MIC USED DIFFERENTLY BY VARIOUS SOURCES;
MINIMUM INHIBITING CONCENTRATION OR
MEAN INHIBITING CONCENTRATION
MKY MONKEY
ML MILLILITER
MLC MEAN OR MINIMAL LETHAL CONCENTRATION
MLD USED DIFFERENTLY BY VARIOUS SOURCES;
MERCK MEANING MINIMUM LETHAL
DOSE; SOME OTHER SOURCES MEANING
MEAN LETHAL DOSE, AND SOME DO NOT
DEFINE IT (WITH APOLOGIES TO THE READER
FROM THE COMPILER)
MM MILLIMOLE
MMP-9 MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE-9
MUFA MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID
MUS MOUSE
NCI NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE
NF-ΚB NUCLEAR FACTOR-KAPPA B
NH3 AMMONIA
NIDDM NONINSULIN-DEPENDENT DIABETES
MELLITUS
NKC NATURAL KILLER CELL
NO NITRIC OXIDE
NSAID NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMATORY DRUG
NWP NORTHWEST PROVINCE OR PUSHTU (DIALECT AT BORDER OF NORTHWESTERN
AFGHANISTAN)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OCD OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER
ODC ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE
OL OLEORESIN
OPC OLIGOMERIC PROCYANIDIN
ORAC OXYGEN RADICAL ABSORBANCE CAPACITY
ORL ORAL
OTC OVER THE COUNTER (OR APPROVED FOR SALE
IN EUROPE)
OZ OUNCE
PA PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS
PAF PLATELET AGGREGATING FACTOR
PAR PARENTERAL
PC PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
PEITC PHENETHYLISOTHIOCYANATE
PERS. COMM. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
PG PROSTAGLANDIN
PGN PIGEON
PKC PROTEIN KINASE C
PMS PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME
PP PAGES
PPM PARTS PER MILLION
PSA PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
PTK PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE
RBT RABBIT
RSV RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS
RT REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE
SAC S-ALLYLCYSTEINE
SAD SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER
SAM S-ADENOSYLMETHIONINE
SCU SUBCUTANEOUS
SF STEPHEN FOSTER
SGPT SERUM GLUTAMIC PYRUVIC TRANSAMINASE
SL SESQUITERPENE LACTONES
SLE SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS
SN SERIAL NUMBER (WHEN FOLLOWED BY A
NUMBER)
SOD SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE
SSRI SELECTIVE SEROTONIN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR
SUP SUPPOSITORY
TAM TRADITIONAL AYURVEDIC MEDICINE
TBSP TABLESPOON
TCM TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE
THC TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL
TNF TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR
TPA 12-O-TETRADECANOYLPHORBOL-13-ACETATE
TQ THYMOQUINONE
TSP TEASPOON
UNK UNKNOWN
UNS UNSPECIFIED
USDA UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
UTI URINARY TRACT INFECTION
UV ULTRAVIOLET
VD VENEREAL DISEASE
VEGF VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR
VOD VENO-OCCLUSIVE DISEASE
VOL VOLUME
WMN WOMAN
WPW WOLFF-PARKINSON-WHITE (SYNDROME)
X SOLITARY X IN THE TITLE LINE OF THE HERB
FOLLOWING THE SCIENTIFIC NAME MEANS
DO NOT TAKE IT WITHOUT ADVICE FROM AN
EXPERT (THINK OF IT AS A SKULL AND
CROSS-BONES)
X FOLLOWED BY SERIAL NUMBER PMID
(PUBMED ID NUMBER)
XO EXTERNAL USE ONLY
ZMB ZERO MOISTURE BASIS
ΜG MICROGRAM
ΜL MICROLITER
ΜM MICROMOLE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
A
AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA K. SCHUM. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
ALLIGATOR PEPPER, GRAINS OF PARADISE, GUINEA GRAINS, MELEGUETA PEPPER
SYNONYM — AMOMUM MELEGUETA ROSCOE.
MEDICINAL USES (GRAINS OF PARADISE) — VIEWED AS AN AFRICAN PANACEA (UPW), THE PLANT WAS
INTRODUCED TO THE WEST INDIES, PROBABLY DURING THE SLAVE TRADE DAYS. NEWLY CAPTURED SLAVES WERE
SO DEPENDENT ON THE SPICE THAT SLAVE SHIPS HAD TO CARRY AN AMPLE SUPPLY. CRUSHED SEEDS ARE RUBBED
ON THE SKIN AS A COUNTERIRRITANT (WO2). PLANT DECOCTION TAKEN AS FEBRIFUGE. ROOT DECOCTION GIVEN
FOR CONSTIPATION. ROOT USED TO EXPEL TAPEWORMS. USED WITH PIPER IN TREATING GONORRHEA (UPW).
JUICE FROM FRESH LEAVES STAUNCHES BLEEDING (WO2). AFRICANS SPECULATE THAT IT HAS MORE SYNERGISTIC
POWER IF GIVEN AS AN ENEMA (UPW). ABREU AND NORONHA (1997) REMIND US THAT THE PUNGENT (SPICY)
PRINCIPLES OF A. MELEGUETA HAVE ANTIFEEDANT, ANTISCHISTOSOMAL, ANTISEPTIC, ANTITERMITE, AND MOLLUSCICIDAL PROPERTIES.
USED FOR TUMORS IN GHANA AND NIGERIA (JLH). LEE AND SURH (1998) NOTE THAT THE PUNGENT
VANILLOIDS, (6)-GINGEROL AND (6)-PARADOL, CAN INDUCE APOPTOSIS. (6)-GINGEROL AND (6)-PARADOL HAVE
ANTITUMOR AND ANTIPROLIFERATIVE EFFECTS (SURH, 1999). (6)-PARADOL, A PUNGENT ZINGIBERACEOUS PHENOLIC,
IS ANTISEPTIC AND ANALGESIC. IT TENDS TO SLOW PROMOTION OF SKIN CARCINOGENESIS AND TOPICAL APPLICATION
INHIBITED TPA-INDUCED EAR EDEMA. IT MAY INDUCE APOPTOSIS IN CULTURED HUMAN PROMYELOCYTIC LEUKEMIA (HL-60) CELLS. IT DECREASED THE INCIDENCE AND THE MULTIPLICITY OF SKIN TUMORS INITIATED BY 7,12-
DIMETHYLBENZ[A]ANTHRACENE (DMBA) AND PROMOTED BY 12-O-TETRADECANOYLPHORBOL-13-ACETATE (TPA).
(6)-PARADOL AND ITS DERIVATIVES POSSESS CANCER CHEMOPREVENTIVE POTENTIAL (CHUNG ET AL., 2001).
WORKING WITH PUNGENT PRINCIPLES, ELDERSHAW ET AL. (1992) SHOWED THAT SOME GINGEROLS AND
SHOGAOLS ARE THERMOGENIC. THE GINGEROLS SHOWED MORE MOLAR POTENCY THAN SHOGAOLS. (6)-SHOGAOL
INHIBITS CARRAGEENIN-INDUCED SWELLING OF HIND PAW IN RATS AND ARACHIDONIC ACID (AA)-INDUCED
PLATELET AGGREGATION IN RABBITS. MOREOVER, (6)-SHOGAOL PREVENTED PROSTAGLANDIN I2 (PGI2) RELEASE
FROM THE AORTA OF RATS WHEN TESTED AS AN INHIBITOR OF PLATELET AGGREGATION. (6)-SHOGAOL INHIBITS
CYCLOOXYGENASE AND 5-LIPOXYGENASE (X3098654).
AND SOME OF THE PUNGENT COMPOUNDS HAVE ANALGESIC EFFECTS. ONOGI ET AL. (1992) STUDIED
ANESTHETIC EFFECTS OF (6)-SHOGAOL, STRUCTURALLY RESEMBLING CAPSAICIN, AND WITH SIMILAR BUT WEAKER
EFFECTS ON SUBSTANCE P. AT 30 ΜM, (6)-SHOGAOL DOSE-DEPENDENTLY INCREASED IMMUNOREACTIVE SUBSTANCE P. THE MAXIMUM EFFECT OF (6)-SHOGAOL WAS OBSERVED AT 100 ΜM, STILL LESS THAN HALF THE EFFECT
OF 10 ΜM CAPSAICIN. SYSTEMIC ADMINISTRATION OF (6)-SHOGAOL (160 MG/KG) WAS ANESTHETIC IN RATS,
WITH PEAK EFFECTS IN 15 AND 30 MIN (80 MG/KG WAS INEFFECTIVE) (X1282221).
INDICATIONS (GRAINS OF PARADISE) — ALLERGY (1; FNF); ASTHMA (1; UPW; FNF); BACKACHE (F;
UPW); BITE (F; UPW); BLEEDING (F; WO2); CANCER (F; JLH; UPW); CHILDBIRTH (F; UPW); CLIMACTERIC
(F; UPW); COLIC (F; UPW); CONSTIPATION (F; WO2); EARACHE (1; UPW; FNF); FEVER (1; WO2; FNF);
FRACTURE (F; UPW); GASTROSIS (F; UPW); GONORRHEA (F; UPW); HEADACHE (1; UPW; FNF); IMPOTENCE
(F; UPW); INFECTION (1; ABS); PAIN (F; UPW); SCHISTOSOMIASIS (1; ABS); SNAKEBITE (F; UPW); SORE
(F; UPW); TAPEWORM (F; WO2); TOOTHACHE (F; UPW; WO2); VD (F; UPW); WORM (F; WO2); WOUND
(F; UPW); YAWS (F; UPW).
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
GRAINS OF PARADISE FOR ASTHMA:
• ANTIALLERGIC: 6-SHOGAOL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: BORNEOL
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: 6-SHOGAOL; 8-GINGEROL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: 6-SHOGAOL; GINGEROL; ZINGERONE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: 6-SHOGAOL; GINGEROL
• ANTISPASMODIC: 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GINGEROL; SHOGAOL; ZINGERONE
GRAINS OF PARADISE FOR FEVER:
• ANALGESIC: 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-TERPINEOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BORNEOL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL; ZINGERONE
• ANTIOXIDANT: 6-SHOGAOL; GINGEROL; ZINGERONE
• ANTIPYRETIC: 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; GINGEROL; OXALIC-ACID; PARADOL; SHOGAOL
• ANTISPASMODIC: 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GINGEROL; SHOGAOL; ZINGERONE
• SEDATIVE: 6-SHOGAOL; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNEOL; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
OTHER USES (GRAINS OF PARADISE) — “MELEGUETA PEPPER IS THE ONLY MAJOR SPICE THAT IS NATIVE TO
AFRICA” (BOWN, 2001). IN THE MIDDLE AGES, THESE GRAINS, ORIGINALLY IMPORTED THROUGH ITALY FROM
AFRICA, ACROSS THE SAHARA THROUGH TRIPOLI, AND FINALLY TO ITALY, WERE RANKED IN EUROPE RIGHT ALONG
WITH THE OTHER HOT SPICES, CINNAMON, CLOVES, AND GINGER. ONE OR ALL TOGETHER WERE USED TO FLAVOR
WINES AND SAUCES. PORTUGUESE EVENTUALLY EVOLVED SEA ROUTES FROM GUINEA. USED DURING MEDIEVAL
TIMES, E.G., ANCIENT ROME, TO FLAVOR THE SPICED WINE “HIPPOCRAS” WITH CINNAMON AND GINGER (BOW).
IT WAS USED AS A PEPPER SUBSTITUTE, BUT THAT USE WAS BANNED IN BRITAIN BY GEORGE III AS INJURIOUS
TO THE HEALTH. BURKILL (1985) TELLS US THAT, IN BRITAIN, THEIR USE TO STRENGTHEN BEER, SPIRITS, AND WINES,
WAS VIEWED AS A BIT MISCHIEVOUS, AND IT WAS FINALLY FORBIDDEN BY LAW (IHB). IN EUROPE AND AMERICA,
THE SPICE IS RARELY USED ANYMORE EXCEPT IN VETERINARY PREPARATIONS AND FOR FLAVORING CERTAIN LIQUEURS
AND VINEGARS (GEO). STILL, IT SEEMS TO BE BETTER KNOWN AS A SPICE THAN AS A MEDICINE OR FOOD. THE
AROMATIC SEEDS ARE USED AS A SPICE AND CONDIMENT, WITH BEER, BREAD, CORDIALS, LIQUEURS, MEATS, AND
WINES, AND USED IN PREPARING PERFUMES (FAC, HHB, WO2). AMERICAN FOOD PROCESSORS ALLEGEDLY
USE THE GRAINS IN CANDY, ICE CREAM, AND SOFT DRINKS (FAC). SEEDS INDISPENSABLE TO THE MOROCCAN
SPICE MIX CALLED “RAS EL HANOUT” (AAR). SEEDS MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR BLACK PEPPER, POUNDED OR
GROUND IN A PEPPER MILL. DURING WARS, THIS WAS A FREQUENT SUBSTITUTE FOR BLACK PEPPER (HHB). IN
BRAZIL, UNDER THE NAME “MALEGUETA PEPPER,” IT IS CRITICAL IN THEIR HOT CHILE/BEAN DISH, FEIFOADA (AAR).
WEST AFRICANS EAT THE PULP AROUND THE IMMATURE SEEDS AND CHEW THE PULP AND/OR SEED AS A STIMULANT
(WO2). CONGOLESE USE THE SEEDS IN MAGIC, USUALLY IN SEVENS OR MULTIPLES OF SEVEN, IN ARMLETS,
BRACELETS, AND MAGIC FETISHES (UPW). SEEDS SOMETIMES USED AS A FISH POISON. ROOTS HAVE THE FLAVOR
OF CARDAMOM.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (GRAINS OF PARADISE) — WIDELY CULTIVATED IN AFRICA AND ELSEWHERE IN THE TROPICS, BOTH
IN SUN AND PARTIAL SHADE.
CHEMISTRY (GRAINS OF PARADISE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN
THIS SPECIES. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://
WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
GINGEROL — ANALGESIC; ANTIAGGREGANT 0.5–20 ΜM, 10–100 ΜM; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIEMETIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN
0.5–20 ΜM; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISCHISTOSOMIC 5 PPM; ANTISEPTIC; ANTITHROMBOXANE 0.5–20 ΜM;
CARDIOTONIC 1–30 ΜM; CHOLAGOGUE; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; FUNGICIDE; GASTROSTIMULANT;
HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOTENSIVE; INOTROPIC 1–30 ΜM; MOLLUSCICIDE 5 PPM, LD20 = 12.5 PPM;
MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE; POSITIVE INOTROPIC 1–30 ΜG/ML; SCHISTOSOMICIDE EC100 = 10 PPM;
SEDATIVE; THERMOGENIC.
6-GINGEROL — AMPHITENSIVE 0.5–1 MG/KG; ANALGESIC 1.7–3.5 MG/KG IVN, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS;
ANESTHETIC 1.75–3.5 MG/KG IPR MUS, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTI-5-HT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIEMETIC 25
MG/KG; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROLIFERATIVE; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50 =
4.6–5.5 ΜM; ANTIPYRETIC 1.7–3.5 MG/KG IVN, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTISERATONINERGIC; ANTITUSSIVE;
ANTIULCER IC58 = 150 MG/KG, IC54 = 100 MG/KG; APOPTOTIC; CARDIODEPRESSANT; CARDIOTONIC; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; CHOLAGOGUE; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC; DEPRESSOR; HEPATOPROTECTIVE;
HYPERTENSIVE 0.5–1 MG/KG; HYPOTENSIVE 1–100 ΜG/KG; LARVICIDE LD90 = 62 ΜG /ML; LD100 = 250
ΜG/ML; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 3 ΜM; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE LD90 = 62 ΜG/ML; POSITIVE
INOTROPIC 10 ΜG/ML; SEDATIVE; STOMACHIC; THERMOGENIC; LD50 = 25.5 INV MUS; LD50 = 58.1 IPR
MUS; LD50 = 250 ORL MUS.
8-GINGEROL — ANTI-5-HT; ANTIAGGREGANT 0.5–20 ΜM; ANTICATHARTIC; ANTIEMETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC;
ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50 = 2.5–5 ΜM; CARDIOTONIC; ENTEROMOTILITY-ENHANCER 5 MG/KG; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.36 ΜM; POSITIVE INOTROPIC 1 ΜG/ML.
6-PARADOL — ANALGESIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTIPROLIFERATIVE; ANTITUMOR (SKIN); APOPTOTIC; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; CYTOTOXIC.
8-PARADOL — ANTIALZHEIMERAN; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; CHEMOPREVENTIVE;
COX-2-INHIBITOR IC50 = 3.4 ΜM.
SHOGAOL — ANALGESIC; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIEMETIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY;
ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEPTIC; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; FUNGICIDE; GASTROSTIMULANT; HYPOTENSIVE; 5-
LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; MOLLUSCICIDE LC100 = 50 PPM, LC20 = 12.5 PPM; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE;
SEDATIVE; THERMOGENIC.
6-SHOGAOL — ANALGESIC 1.7–3.5 MG/KG IVN, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANESTHETIC 1.75–3.5 MG/KG
IPR MUS, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTI-5-HT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTICATHARTIC; ANTIEDEMIC;
ANTIEMETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIHYPOTHERMIC 10 MG/KG; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50
= 1.6–2.3 ΜM; ANTIPYRETIC 1.7–3.5 MG/KG IVN, 140 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUSSIVE;
ANTIULCER IC70 = 150 MG/KG; BRADYCARDIC; CARDIODEPRESSANT 10–100 ΜG/KG; CARDIOTONIC; CNSDEPRESSANT; COX-2-INHIBITOR IC50 = 2.1 ΜM; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; ENTEROMOTILITYENHANCER 2.5 MG/KG; GASTROSTIMULANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPERTENSIVE 0.5–1 MG/KG; HYPOTENSIVE 1–100 ΜG/KG; LARVICIDE LD90 = 62 ΜG/ML; MOLLUSCICIDE; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE LD90
= 62 ΜG/ML, MLC = 0.1 MG/ML; POSITIVE INOTROPIC; PRESSOR; SEDATIVE; SPROUT-INHIBITOR; STOMACHIC; SYMPATHOMIMETIC; VASOCONSTRICTOR; LD50 = 25–51 IVN MUS; LD50 = 109 IPR MUS;
LD50 = 250–687 ORL MUS.
ZINGERONE — ADRENERGIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC IC50 = 8.9 ΜM; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT (LDL) IC50 = 8.9 ΜM; ANTIPYRETIC; CARDIOTONIC; CATECHOLAMINIGENIC;
CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; HYPOTENSIVE; IRRITANT; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; PARALYTIC; SECRETAGOGUE; TACHYPHYLACTIC; VASODILATOR; LD50 = 2560 ORL RAT.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AFRAMOMUM SCEPTRUM (OLIV. AND D. HANB.) K. SCHUM.
(ZINGIBERACEAE)
BLACK AMOMUM, GUINEA GRAINS
MEDICINAL USES (GUINEA GRAINS) — SEEDS AN INGREDIENT IN MEDICINE FOR INTERNAL USES, FOR
DYSENTERY AND GASTROINTESTINAL AILMENTS. SEED IS LAXATIVE. SEEDS ARE CHEWED LIKE KOLA, HAVING A
NUMBING EFFECT, HENCE USED FOR TOOTHACHES. THEY ARE USED TO DISGUISE POISON AND DRUGS ADMINISTERED FURTIVELY, AS APHRODISIACS AND ABORTIFACIENTS. THEY ARE USED AS FISH POISON. FOR EXTERNAL
USE, SEEDS ARE CRUSHED AND RUBBED ON THE BODY AS A COUNTERIRRITANT, OR APPLIED AS A PASTE FOR
HEADACHE, EARACHE, OR PULVERIZED AND PUT ON WOUNDS AND SORES. FRUIT CHEWED AS A STIMULANT
(CFR). LEAVES ARE CRUSHED WITH LIME FOR SPOTS OF SMALL-POX (BURKILL, 2000). JUICE OF YOUNG
LEAVES IS STYPTIC (CFR). OIL IS A STIMULATING CARMINATIVE. ROOTS ARE TAKEN FOR CONSTIPATION AND AS
A VERMIFUGE FOR TAPEWORM. IN MALI, ROOTS ARE TAKEN FOR BLENNORRHAGIA AND INTESTINAL WORMS,
WHETHER DRIED AND MIXED WITH SALT, GINGER, OR PINE NUTS, OR CRUSHED IN COLD WATER OVERNIGHT AND
DRUNK IN THE MORNING ON AN EMPTY STOMACH (BURKILL, 2000).
INDICATIONS (GUINEA GRAINS) — BLENORRHAGIA (F; IHB); CONSTIPATION (F; IHB); EARACHE (F; CFR);
HEADACHE (F; CFR); SMALLPOX (F; IHB); TOOTHACHE (F; CFR); WORM (F; IHB); WOUND (F; CFR).
OTHER USES (GUINEA GRAINS) — SEEDS ARE PUNGENT AND USED FOR FLAVORING CORDIALS AND LIQUORS,
AND IN VETERINARY MEDICINE. SEEDS ARE ALSO USED IN FOODS. SEEDS ARE CAMPHORACEOUS IN TASTE (BURKILL,
2000). FRUIT-PULP AROUND SEEDS IS EATEN, ESPECIALLY BEFORE MATURITY. SEEDS YIELD AN ESSENTIAL OIL
(EO) WHOSE PUNGENCY IS DUE TO PARADOL, A YELLOW OILY SUBSTANCE SIMILAR TO GINGEROL, PRESENT IN THE
FATTY OIL OF THE SEEDS. OIL HAS BEEN USED AS A SPICE (CFR). LEAVES ARE COOKED IN FOOD AS A FLAVORING.
THE IGALA OF NIGERIA MAKE COSTUMES FOR MASQUERADES FROM THE LEAVES. ROOT IS FIBROUS AND USED IN
SE NIGERIA FOR WEAVING.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (GUINEA GRAINS) — IN MOST AREAS OF TROPICAL AFRICA, MOST FRUITS ARE GATHERED FROM
WILD PLANTS GROWING IN TEMPORARY CLEARINGS IN THE FOREST. PLANTS OFTEN GROWN IN HOME OR LOCAL
GARDENS IN THE TROPICAL FORESTS, USUALLY PROPAGATED BY DIVISIONS OF THE RHIZOMES. PLANTS ARE EASILY
GROWN UNDER THE FOREST CONDITIONS AND DO NOT HAVE ANY SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS IN CULTIVATION.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION ARE SIMILAR TO THOSE USED FOR GINGER AND CARDAMOMS. FRUITS AND THEIR SEEDS
ARE HARVESTED WHEN RIPE, MAINLY FROM PLANTS IN THE FORESTS, OR FROM PLANTS PLANTED AT EDGE OF THE
FOREST. SEEDS ARE REMOVED FROM THE FRUIT AND DRIED UNTIL NEEDED. OFTEN, FRUITS ARE PICKED WHENEVER
THEY ARE DESIRED AS A CHEW, AND THERE IS NO REAL TIME FOR HARVEST. PLANTS FLOWER AND FRUIT YEAR
ROUND (CFR).
CHEMISTRY (GUINEA GRAINS) — SINCE I HAVE FOUND NO CHEMICAL DATA, ONE COULD ASSUME THAT IT
MAY SHARE MANY OF THE SAME CHEMICALS AS AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALLIUM CEPA L. (LILIACEAE)
BERMUDA ONION, ONION, SHALLOT
MEDICINAL USES (ONION) — I THINK THE WHOLE CHIVE/GARLIC/LEEK/ONION/RAMP/SCALLION ALLIANCE IS AS
IMPORTANT FOR MEDICINE AS FOR FOOD. PERHAPS MY NEAR ADDICTION TO GREEN BEANS AND ONIONS HAS SPARED
ME THE ADULT ONSET DIABETES. ORAL EXTRACTS OF ONION AND ONION JUICE SEEM TO LOWER BLOOD SUGAR. THE
SCALES OUTSIDE THE ONION BULB ARE ONE OF THE RICHER SOURCES OF QUERCETIN, A VERY USEFUL PHYTOCHEMICAL
ALSO SHARED WITH EVENING PRIMROSE. SCALES CONTAIN A HEART STIMULANT THAT INCREASES PULSE VOLUME,
AFFECTS THE UTERUS, PROMOTES BILE PRODUCTION, AND REDUCES BLOOD SUGAR. ONION BULBS ARE SAID TO BE
APHRODISIAC, DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT, EMMENAGOGUE, HYPOGLYCEMIC, AND STIMULANT (MPI). ONION JUICE
AND EO DEMONSTRATED ANTIAGGREGANT AND HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC ACTIVITIES IN HUMANS SUBJECTS (MPI).
ONIONS ARE ALLEGED TO STIMULATE BILE PRODUCTION, TO SPEED HEALING OF GUNSHOT WOUNDS, AND TO CURE
SCORPION BITES, FRECKLES, AND THE COMMON COLD. ASIAN INDIANS EAT RAW ONIONS, SPICED UP WITH LEMON,
PEPPER, AND SALT, FOR BRONCHITIS, COLIC, EDEMA, FEVER, AND SCURVY (LIBSTER, 2002). SOME PEOPLE WITH
PARASITES MACERATE AN ONION IN WHITE WINE AND DRINK IT ON AN EMPTY STOMACH IN THE MORNING. OR
PEDIATRIC PATIENTS DRINK WATER IN WHICH ONION HAS STEEPED OVERNIGHT TO KILL PARASITES (LIBSTER, 2002).
COOKED ONIONS ARE CONSUMED BY JAPANESE MACROBIOTICISTS TO CALM THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ALLEVIATE
IRRITABILITY AND SORE MUSCLES AFTER HEAVY LABOR. A CUT RAW ONION IS PLACED UNDER THE PILLOW TO AID
INSOMNIA (LIBSTER, 2002). REPUTED TO BE HYPOTENSIVE, ONIONS HAVE RECENTLY BEEN SHOWN TO CONTAIN
THE ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT PROSTAGLANDIN A1, BUT ONLY AT CA. 1 PPM. WITH PROSTAGLANDINS LIKE THIS
GOING AT $10 PER MILLIGRAM, THAT MEANS THAT A KILOGRAM OF ONIONS (NOW COSTING ABOUT $1) CONTAINS
$10 WORTH OF PROSTAGLANDIN. ADD THAT TO YOUR CHICKEN SOUP. JUICE OF THE BULB IS USED FOR COUGHS
AND EARACHE. MACERATED IN GIN, THE BULBS ARE USED FOR DROPSY AND GRAVEL (GMH). IN INDIA, ONIONS
ARE BELIEVED TO BE APHRODISIAC, ESPECIALLY IF RETAINED IN A COW DUNG YEAR IN A WELL-STOPPERED POT
FOR FOUR MONTHS (DEP). EVEN WILDER, IN AN INDIAN FORMULA FOR ACUTE DYSENTERY, ONE BURIES A GRAIN
OF OPIUM IN AN ONION BULB AND THEN ROASTS THE ONION (DEP). MOST OF THE REAL AND FOLK MEDICINAL
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ATTRIBUTES OF ONION ARE SHARED WITH GARLIC AND OTHER LESSER KNOWN MEMBERS OF THE GENUS ALLIUM.
GARLIC IS POPULAR WITH ORGANIC GARDENERS AND NATUROPATHS FOR ITS BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES.
LIBSTER (2002) COMMENTS ON THE BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITIES OF ONION, A CLOSE SECOND TO GARLIC,
PROBABLY EQUIPOTENT ON A ZMB. ONION IS INDICATED FOR ITS ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIONS, USED FOR MILLENNIA
FOR COUGHS AND COLDS, WHETHER BACTERIAL OR VIRAL. FRESH ONION EXTRACTS (NOT STEAMED OR EXPOSED TO
37ΟC TWO DAYS AFTER GRATING) SLOW PREVOTELLA INTERMEDIA, PORPHYROMONAS GINGIVALIS, STREPTOCOCCUS
MUTANS, AND S. SOBRINUS, ALL IMPLICATED IN TOOTH DECAY. GRAM(+) BACTERIA ARE MORE SENSITIVE THAN
GRAM(–), AT LEAST TO EGYPTIAN ONION OIL. IN VITRO, ONION OIL SIGNIFICANTLY INHIBITED BACILLUS ANTHRACIS,
B. CEREUS, MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AMONG GRAM(+) AND GRAM(–) ESCHERICHIA
COLI AND KLEBSIELLA PNEUOMONIAE. BUT LIBSTER REPORTS OTHER STUDIES SHOWING NO BACTERICIDAL EFFECT
ON MORAXELLA CATARRHALKIS AND STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE (LIBSTER, 2002). FRESHLY EXPRESSED JUICE
IS SAID TO BE MODERATELY BACTERICIDAL. CHEN ET AL. (1985) SHOWED ONION WAS WEAKER AS AN ANTIBACTERIAL
THAN GARLIC. ONION INHIBITED E. COLI, P. VULGARIS, S. FAECALIS, AND B. CEREUS (X4064797). ONION
PROVED ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING
TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999). THE
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITIES OF GREEN ONION ARE SLIGHTLY WEAKER THAN REGULAR ONION. HOWEVER, GREEN ONION
INHIBITED P. AERUGINOSA AND M. LUTEUS.
SUMMARIZING CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN
STUDIES ON ONION FOR COLIC, HYPERLIPIDEMIA, SCARRING, AND STOMACH CANCER. THEY ADDUCED EVIDENCE
THAT ONIONS FED TO BREAST-FEEDING MOTHERS INCREASED COLIC SYMPTOMS IN BREAST-FEEDING INFANTS,
“GARLIC AND ONION CAN BE INGESTED FREQUENTLY IN LOW DOSES WITHOUT ANY SIDE EFFECTS, AND CAN STILL
PRODUCE A SIGNIFICANT ANTITHROMBIC EFFECT.”
ANTIDIABETIC (BLOOD SUGAR REGULATING) PROPERTIES OF S-METHYL-CYSTEINE SULFOXIDE (200 MG/KG FOR
45 DAYS IN ALLOXAN-DIABETIC RATS) ISOLATED FROM ONION WERE COMPARABLE TO THOSE OF GLIBENCLAMIDE
AND INSULIN (KHAN AND BALICK, 2001). AL-BEKAIRI ET AL. (1985) FED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF ONION TO MICE
FOR THREE MONTHS (100 MG/KG ADDED TO DRINKING WATER) AND FOUND NO ESTROGENIC, ANTIESTROGENIC, OR
SPERMATOTOXIC ACTIVITY. THEY DID SUGGEST APHRODISIAC ACTIVITY INCREASED WEIGHT OF TESTES AND EPIDIDYMUS, AND PRODUCED A SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN SPERM COUNT.
IN HUMAN STUDIES, ONION AND GARLIC SIGNIFICANTLY PREVENTED FAT-INDUCED (DIETARY) INCREASES IN
SERUM CHOLESTEROL AND PLASMA FIBRINOGEN. BRIGGS ET AL. (2001) SHOWED THAT RAW ONION INHIBITED
PLATELET-MEDIATED THROMBOSIS IN DOGS. A NUMBER OF OTHER STUDIES SUGGEST THAT DIETARY ONION IS GOOD
FOR THE HEART. ONION JUICE INHIBITS HUMAN PLATELET AGGREGATION IN VITRO. SIX DOGS GIVEN 2.0 G/KG RAW
ONION HOMOGENATE INTRAGASTRICALLY SHOWED SIGNIFICANT ANTIAGGREGANT ACTIVITY, SUGGESTING THAT RAW
ONION MAY HELP PREVENT PLATELET-MEDIATED CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS (X11584080).
FOLKLORICALLY, ROASTED ONION IS APPLIED TO TUMORS. THE SEED, WITH HONEY, IS A FOLK REMEDY FOR
WARTS. AN INJECTION OF THE JUICE IS SAID TO HELP TUMORS OF THE BREAST AND RECTUM, AMONG OTHERS. THE
BULB, PREPARED IN VARIOUS MANNERS, IS SAID TO HELP INDURATED GLANDS AND TUMORS. WHILE GARLIC, AT
LEAST ON AN AS-PURCHASED BASIS, IS MORE OFTEN MENTIONED FOR CANCER THAN ONION, THE ONION IS THE
BETTER SOURCE OF QUERCETIN. AND I CAN HANDLE 10–20 G ONION MUCH MORE READILY THAN A CLOVE OF RAW
GARLIC. ONION IS BY FAR MY RICHEST SOURCE OF PROTOCATECHUIC ACID (PA) (0.45–1.7%) ON A DRY WEIGHT
BASIS, IF MY SOURCES ARE CORRECT. AT LEVELS 1/1000TH OF THE TOXIC DOSE, PA IS A GOOD CHEMOPREVENTIVE,
AT LEAST IN MOUSE SKIN. KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTED AN INVERSE CORRELATION BETWEEN DIETARY ONIONS
AND STOMACH CANCER — ANTIOXIDANTS CAN BE A DOUBLED-EDGED SWORD FOR CANCER CONTROL. AS A SILVER
BULLET, ISOLATED AND CONCENTRATED PHYTOCHEMICAL, PA CAN BE A BAD RATHER THAN A GOOD GUY, WITH
ALLERGENIC, CARCINOGENIC, GLUTATHIONE-DEPLETING, HEPATOTOXIC, AND NEPHROTOXIC POTENTIAL
(JAF49:5674). IT IS MY PERSONAL OPINION THAT DIETARY ONION IS MORE LIABLE TO PREVENT THAN TO CAUSE
CANCER. ACCORDING TO LIBSTER (2002), COOKING ONION WITH HAMBURGER IS SUPPOSED TO REDUCE THE
CARCINOGENICITY OF THE CHARBROIL. SUGARS RELEASED IN COOKING (AND, TO A LESSER DEGREE, QUERCETIN)
REDUCE THE MUTAGENICITY OF GROUND BEEF (LIBSTER, 2002). DIETARY NUTRIENTS ARE ALMOST ALWAYS GOOD
GUYS WHEN CONSUMED IN THEIR DIETARY (EVOLUTIONARY) CONTEXT; IT’S WHEN THEY ARE ISOLATED AND PUT IN
CAPSULES THAT IT BECOMES POSSIBLE TO OVERDOSE AND OVERWHELM YOUR HOMEOSTASIS.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ON DECEMBER 10, 2001, THE NEWS BROKE ON AROMATASE INHIBITORS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTAINMENT OF BREAST CANCERS. THERE WAS, EXPECTEDLY, NO MENTION OF THE NATURAL AROMATASE INHIBITORS.
FIORELLIA ET AL. (1999) NOTE THAT CELLS OF COLORECTAL ADENOCARCINOMA ALSO EXPRESS AROMATASE, WHICH
WAS INHIBITED BY 1 ΜM QUERCETIN (ABUNDANT IN EVENING PRIMROSE AND ONION), AS BY THE SYNTHETICS
TAMOXIFEN (100 NM) AND RALOXIFENE (10 NM). THAT TELLS ME THAT ON A MOLAR BASIS, QUERCETIN WAS
ONE TENTH AS POTENT AS TAMOXIFEN. SAARINEN ET AL. (2001), AWARE OF THE IN VITRO ANTIAROMATASE ACTIVITY,
WERE UNABLE TO FIND SUCH ACTIVITY IN VIVO. IN RATS GIVEN DOSES OF 50 MG/KG, NEITHER APIGENIN, CHRYSIN,
NOR NARINGENIN INHIBITED AROMATASE. THEY SUSPECT THAT THIS LACK OF INHIBITION MAY HAVE BEEN DUE TO
RELATIVELY POOR ABSORPTION AND/OR BIOAVAILABILITY OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS.
IN A UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII STUDY OF 582 PATIENTS, THOSE WHO ATE THE MOST ONION HAD 50% LESS
LUNG CANCER, ESPECIALLY SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (CF 40% FOR APPLES). BOIK (2001) CAUTIOUSLY PRAISES
THE FLAVONOIDS, MORE SPECIFICALLY FLAVONOLS, QUERCETIN, AND KAEMPFEROL, IF NOT ONION, AS A CANCER
PREVENTIVE. MOST OF NEARLY 75 STUDIES ON THE FLAVONOL QUERCETIN SUGGEST THAT IT INHIBITS PROLIFERATION
OF A WIDE ARRAY OF TUMORS, USUALLY AT LEVELS OF 1–50 ΜM. BOIK (2001) REPORTS ONLY FOUR ANIMAL
STUDIES OF QUERCETIN, IN TWO OF WHICH IPR QUERCETIN INHIBITED LEUKEMIA, LYMPHOMA, METASTASIS OF
MELANOMA, AND REDUCTION OF HUMAN HEAD AND NECK SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA. THE ANIMAL STUDIES
LEAD BOIK TO SUGGEST HUMAN DOSAGES OF 1,200 TO 4,000 MG/MAN/DAY. IN THE SINGLE HUMAN STUDY,
THERE WAS EVIDENCE OF CANCER INHIBITION. QUERCETIN MAY HAVE SOME ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY, BUT ONLY
10% OF THE ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY OF GENISTEIN, WHICH “APPEARS CAPABLE OF PRODUCING AN ESTROGENIC
EFFECT AND STIMULATING CANCER GROWTH.” LUTEOLIN SEEMS CA. 58% AS ESTROGENIC, RESVERATROL 22%, AND
APIGENIN CA. 16% AS ESTROGENIC. THE FLAVONES ARE MORE POTENT ANTIOXIDANTS THAN VITAMIN C, APIGENIN
CA. 1.5 TIMES MORE POTENT, RESVERATROL 2 TIMES, WITH QUERCETIN 4.7 TIMES MORE POTENT, ALMOST AS
POTENT AS THE OLIGOMERIC PROCYANIDINS (OPCS) AT NEARLY 5 TIMES AS POTENT. IN SCAVENGING FREE RADICALS,
THESE COMPOUNDS CAN ALSO PREVENT CANCER. AT MODERATE DOSES, IN VIVO, IT’S LIKELY THAT QUERCETIN AND
THE OTHER FLAVONOIDS SERVE AS ANTIOXIDANT RATHER THAN PROOXIDANTS. HOWEVER, THERE ARE CONDITIONS
UNDER WHICH QUERCETIN CAN FUNCTION AS A MUTAGEN AND/OR PROOXIDANT. BOIK (AND/OR MY DATABASE)
LISTS SEVERAL MECHANISMS BY WHICH ONION’S QUERCETIN MIGHT PREVENT CANCER. SO WE HAVE ONE FLAVONOL
WITH MORE THAN A DOZEN DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES THAT COULD REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER, AND WE HAVE
AT LEAST A HALF DOZEN OTHER FLAVONOIDS DOING MANY OF THE SAME THINGS IN SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT LEVELS AND
WAYS. PERHAPS THAT ENABLES BOIK TO PREDICT SYNERGIES AMONG THESE FOOD FARMACEUTICALS. BOLDLY, HE
CALCULATES SOME TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 1.2–4.9 G/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTITUMOR STUDIES),
1–4 G/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY STUDIES), LEADING TO A TARGET DOSE OF 3800 MG/
DAY QUERCETIN. THEN, MORE SPECULATIVELY, HE SUGGESTS THAT SYNERGIES WITH OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS MAY
REDUCE THAT MINIMUM ANTITUMOR DOSE TO 250 MG QUERCETIN/DAY, PARALLELING HIS MINIMUM ANTICANCER
DOSE 100 MG FOR GENISTEIN (E.G., IN BEANS), AND 170 MG LUTEOLIN THROUGH SIMILAR CALCULATIONS. LOOKS
LIKE GOOD REASONING FOR CURRIED BEAN/CELERY SOUP WITH PLENTY OF ONION FOR ITS QUERCETIN, AND GARLIC
FOR ITS DADS, ETC. IF YOU FIND THIS PARAGRAPH ROUGH SLEDDING, MAY I REFER YOU TO BOIK’S VERY
INTERESTING BOOK (BO2).
YOU MAY FIND EQUALLY ROUGH SLEDDING ON 450 INDUCTION, A DETOXICATION MECHANISM FOR POISONS,
BOTH NATURAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL, AND P450 INHIBITION, A MECHANISM THAT POTENTIATES SOME POISONS,
NATURAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL. MORE CONFUSING, QUERCETIN IS BOTH AN INDUCER AND INHIBITOR OF P450
ENZYMES, REPORTEDLY INHIBITING AT IC50 = 50–100 ΜM, INDUCING AT 5 ΜM/RAT IPR. FOR MORE INFORMATION, YOU SHOULD CONSULT DR. FLOCKHART’S DATABASE AT GEORGETOWN (HTTP://WWW.DML.GEORGETOWN.EDU/
DEPTS/PHARMACOLOGY/DAVETAB.HTML).
SMOOTHER SAILING, I HOPE, WITH THE COLOR CODE (JOSEPH ET AL., 2002), WHERE WE READ THAT ALL
ONIONS — PURPLE, RED, WHITE, OR YELLOW — CONTAIN THE ORGANOSULFUR PHYTOCOMEDICINALS (THE HOTTER
THE ONION, THE MORE ORGANOSULFUR). THE COLOR CODE STRESSES THE RED ONIONS THAT CONTAIN ANTHOCYANINS,
ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUNDS, AND THE QUERCETIN PRAISED ABOVE. MORE IMPORTANTLY, WHAT THE COLOR CODE
SAYS MOVES MY FAVORITE ANTIDIABETIC STRING BEANS WITH RAW ONIONS INTO THE LUNG CANCER AND OSTEOPOROSIS COLUMN. WITH MALE RATS FED 1 G POWDERED ONION/DAY FOR A MONTH, MINERAL CONTENT OF BONE
INCREASED >17% AND BONE THICKNESS BY 15%. REMOVING THE OVARIES FROM FEMALE RATS RESULTED IN
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
32% BONE LOSS. BUT FEEDING THE OVARIECTOMIZED RATS POWDERED ONION, THEY LOST 25% LESS BONE.
“ONION THERAPY WAS SLIGHTLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN THE OSTEOPOROSIS DRUG CALCITONIN” (JNU).
ALLOW ME TO GET SPECULATIVE; YOUR BODY COEVOLVED WITH PHYTOCHEMICALS LIKE QUERCETIN. YOUR
GENES HAVE KNOWN THESE PHYTOCHEMICALS MORE THAN 5 MILLION YEARS. IN THOSE YEARS, YOUR BODY HAS
EVOLVED HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS FOR KEEPING WHOLESOME PHYTOCHEMICALS WITHIN BOUNDS, GRABBING
A PHYTOCHEMICAL WHEN THE BODY NEEDS IT, EXCLUDING A PHYTOCHEMICAL, OFTEN AS “EXPENSIVE URINE,”
WHEN IT IS UNNEEDED. IT IS THE UNNATURAL PHARMACEUTICAL (WHICH MAY BE INHIBITED OR POTENTIATED BY
HUNDREDS OF PHYTOCHEMICALS IN OUR FOOD CHAIN) THAT IS DANGEROUS, NOT THE NATURAL PHYTOCHEMICAL.
IN THE OPENING YEARS OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM, THE PRESS, ECHOING BIASED INTERESTS, IS FRIGHTENING YOU
FROM THE SAFER FOODS AND HERBS, AND INTO THE WAITING ARMS OF THE MORE DANGEROUS PHARMACEUTICALS.
THEY ARE TRYING TO SELL YOU A PILL A DAY FOR LIFE INSTEAD OF TRYING TO MAKE YOU WELL. YOUR BODY KNOWS
BETTER THAN YOUR PHYSICIAN, OR PHARMACIST, OR HERBALIST, WHICH PHYTOCHEMICALS YOUR BODY NEEDS.
FEED IT A WIDE VARIETY OF PLANT FOODS AND IT WILL SELECT FROM THAT PHYTOCHEMICAL MENU. FEED IT A
SOLITARY PHARMACEUTICAL, AND THERE IS NO MENU — JUST THE SOLITARY SILVER BULLET THAT MAY OR MAY NOT
BE WHAT THE BODY NEEDS. FEED IT A FRUIT OR VEGETABLE, AND IT HAS HUNDREDS OF USEFUL PHYTOCHEMICALS
FROM WHICH TO CHOOSE. CAN YOU BODY DO THIS? FEED IT, SEVEN EACH, WHOLESOME TYPES OF BEANS,
FRUITS, GRAINS, HERBS, NUTS, SPICES, AND VEGETABLES A DAY, AND IT HAS 49 MENUS FROM WHICH TO SEEK A
REMEDY, HOMEOSTATICALLY.
INDICATIONS (ONION) — ADENOSIS (F; JLH); ACNE (F; JFM; WHO); ALLERGY (1; BRU; FNF); AMEBA
(1; X10594976); ANAPHYLAXIS (1; X3932203); ANGINA (F; BGB; PHR); ANOREXIA (2; BGB; KOM;
PH2; WHO); APOPLEXY (F; DEP); ASTHMA (1; APA; BRU; JFM; PHR; PH2); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (2;
APA; FNF; JFM; KOM; PH2; SHT; WO2); BACILLUS (1; X4064797); BACTERIA (1; FNF; JFM; PH2);
BITE (F; DEP); BILIOUSNESS (F; KAB); BLEEDING (F; KAB); BLISTER (1; SKJ); BOIL (1; SKJ); BRONCHOSIS
(2; BGB; PHR; PH2; WHO); BRUISE (F; PHR; WHO); BUG BITE (F; PHR); BURN (F; JLH; PHR);
CANCER (1; APA; FNF); CANCER, BREAST (1; FNF; JLH; JNU); CANCER, COLON (1; JNU); CANCER,
ESOPHAGUS (1; JNU); CANCER, GLAND (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LUNG (1;
JNU); CANCER, RECTUM (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; APA; BRU; FNF; JLH; JAC7:405);
CANCER, UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CANDIDA (1; X10594976); CARBUNCLE (F; KAB); CARDIOPATHY (1; APA;
JNU); CARIES (1; X9354029); CATARRH (F; KAB); CHEST COLD (F; JFM); CHILBLAIN (F; KAP); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; JFM; PHR); CHOLERA (F; DEP; WHO); COLD (2; DEM; FNF; PHR; PH2); COLIC (F; KAP;
PHR; PH2; WHO); COLOSIS (F; KAP); CONGESTION (1; APA; BGB; JFM); CONVULSION (F; KAB;
LIB); CORN (F; JLH; LIB); COUGH (2; BGB; JFM; PHR; PH2); CRAMP (F; GHA); DEAFNESS (F; GHA;
JFM); DERMATOSIS (1; X7600010; SKJ); DIABETES (2; APA; FNF; WHO); DROPSY (F; BGB; DAD;
GMH); DYSENTERY (F; BGB; DAD; JNU); DYSGEUZIA (F; KAB); DYSMENORRHEA (F; PHR); DYSPEPSIA
(2; JFM; PHR; PH2); DYSPNEA (F; BGB); DYSURIA (F; KAB); EARACHE (1; APA; DEM; DEP); EDEMA
(F; JFM; LIB); EPILEPSY (F; JFM); EPISTAXIS (F; KAB; LIB); ESCHERICHIA (1; PH2; X4064797); FELON
(F; JLH); FEVER (2; DEM; PHR; PH2; WHO); FLU (1; DEM; FNF); FUNGUS (1; X10594976); FURUNCLE
(F; PHR); GAS (F; DAD; JFM; SKJ); GASTROSIS (F; GHA); GIARDIA (1; X10594976); GINGIVOSIS (1;
X9354029); GRAVEL (F; BGB; DAD; GMH); HEADACHE (F; LIB); HEMORRHOID (F; LIB); HEPATOSIS
(F; KAB); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (2; FNF; PHR; PH2; SHT; WHO); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (2; APA; FNF;
SHT; WHO); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1; FNF; WHO); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1; FNF); HYPERLIPIDEMIA (F;
SKJ); HYSTERIA (F; DEP; KAB); IMMUNODEPRESSION (2; FNF; PHR); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION
(2; FNF; JNU; PHR; PH2); INFLAMMATION (2; FNF; PHR); INSOMNIA (F; KAB); JAUNDICE (F; LIB;
WHO); LYMPHANGITES (F; KAB); MALARIA (F; DEP; JFM); MANGE (F; JFM); MIGRAINE (F; KAB);
MYCOSIS (1; X10548758); NEPHROSIS (F; BGB; GHA); NEURALGIA (F; JFM); NIDDM (2; WHO);
NYCTALOPIA (F; KAB); OBESITY (1; BGB; LIB; SKJ); ODONTOSIS (F; KAB); OPHTHALMIA (F; SKJ);
OSTEOPOROSIS (1; ACT5:330; JNU); OTOSIS (F; SKJ; WHO); PAIN (1; FNF; JFM); PARASITE (1; JFM;
X10594976); PERIODONTOSIS (1; X9354029); PERTUSSIS (F; PHR); PHARYNGOSIS (2; PHR); PHTHISIS (F;
DEP); PROCTOSIS (F; KAB); PROLAPSE (F; KAB); PROTOZOA (1; X10594976); RABIES (F; KAB); RHEUMATISM (F; JFM); SALMONELLA (1; PH2); SCABIES (F; JFM; LIB); SINUSOSIS (F; LIB); SORE (1; JNU;
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WHO); SORE THROAT (F; DEP; LIB); SPLENOSIS (F; DEP; LIB); STING (F; JFM); STOMACHACHE (F; PHR);
STOMATOSIS (2; PHR); STRANGURY (F; KAP); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; X9354029; X4064797); SUNSTROKE (F;
DEP); SWELLING (F; JFM); SYNCOPE (F; DEP; KAB); TENESMUS (F; BGB); THROMBOSIS (F; JFM);
TINNITUS (F; JFM); TONSILOSIS (F; JFM); TOOTHACHE (F; JNU); TUBERCULOSIS (F; JFM; LIB); VD (F;
LIB); VERTIGO (F; KAB); VIRUS (1; X10594976); WART (F; PHR); WHITLOW (F; JLH); WORM (F; JFM);
WOUND (F; PHR); YEAST (1; WHO; X10594976).
ONION FOR COLDS:
• ANALGESIC: ADENOSINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: ETHYLENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: CIS-METHYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; CIS-N-PROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; N-PROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-N-PROPYLESTER; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; TRANS-5-ETHYL-4,6,7-TRITHIA- 2-
DECENE-4-S-OXIDE; TRANS-METHYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; TRANS-N-PROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; TRANS-TRANS-5-ETHYL-4,6,7-TRITHIA-2,8-DECADIENE-4-S-OXIDE;
TULIPOSIDE-A
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ACETIC-ACID; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; BENZYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CYCLOARTENOL; CYCLOEUCALENOL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; ENDOLYSIN; FERULIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; MURAMIDASE; OLEANOLIC-ACID;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SILVER; SINAPIC-ACID;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIFLU: ALLICIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-O-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID;
FUMARIC-ACID; GLUTATHIONE; ISOQUERCITRIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEIN; MELATONIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PYROCATECHOL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN;
SINAPIC-ACID; SPIRAEOSIDE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 5-HEXYL-CYCLOPENTA-1,3-DIONE; 5-OCTYL-CYCLOPENTA-1,3-DIONE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN;
BENZYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE;
KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; OXALIC-ACID; PHLOROGLUCINOL; PYROCATECHOL; TRIGONELLINE
• ANTITUSSIVE: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ALLICIN; BENZYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: ALLICIN; CIS-METHYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; CIS-NPROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; N-PROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-N-PROPYLESTER; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; TRANS-5-ETHYL-4,6,7-TRITHIA- 2-
DECENE-4-S-OXIDE; TRANS-METHYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; TRANS-N-PROPYLSULPHINOTHIOIC-ACID-S-1-PROPENYLESTER; TRANS-TRANS-5-ETHYL-4,6,7-TRITHIA-2,8-DECADIENE-4-S-OXIDE
• EXPECTORANT: ACETIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; MELATONIN; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; FERULIC-ACID; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• VIRISTAT: BENZYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ONION FOR DIABETES:
• ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SPIRAEOSIDE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ADENOSINE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CYCLOALLIIN;
FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIDIABETIC: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; DIPHENYLAMINE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; S-METHYL-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE
• ANTIOXIDANT: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID;
FUMARIC-ACID; GLUTATHIONE; ISOQUERCITRIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEIN; MELATONIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PYROCATECHOL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN;
SINAPIC-ACID; SPIRAEOSIDE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIRADICULAR: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEIN; MELATONIN;
PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTITHROMBIC: FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: 24-METHYLENE-CYCLOARTANOL; ADENOSINE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CYCLOARTENOL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; MELATONIN; RUTIN; TRIGONELLINE
• HYPOGLYCEMIC: ADENOSINE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; DIPHENYLAMINE; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; TRIGONELLINE
• INSULIN-SPARING: ALLICIN
• INSULINIC: ADENOSINE
• INSULINOGENIC: QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (ONION) — FOR MILLENNIA, ONIONS HAVE BEEN FAMOUS FOR FOOD, CONDIMENTS, AND
MEDICINE. GREEN ONIONS ARE EATEN RAW WITH MEATS, FISH, CHEESE, OR AS A VEGETABLE, OR CHOPPED AND
ADDED TO COTTAGE CHEESE, OR COOKED. ONIONS ARE EATEN RAW, BOILED, BAKED, CREAMED, BROILED, FRIED,
FRENCH-FRIED, ROASTED, OR PICKLED, AND IN SOUPS, STEWS, DRESSINGS, OR SALADS, BUT PERHAPS MORE
IMPORTANTLY, ADDED TO OTHER INGREDIENTS FOR INNUMERABLE DISHES. DRY ONIONS MAY BE SERVED AS A
VEGETABLE DISH OR TO FLAVOR MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY DISHES AND ARE ALSO USED IN SALT SUBSTITUTES SUCH
AS SPIKE, MRS. DASH, AND VEGIT. A THICK LAYER OF COOKED ONION IS USED ON THE FRENCH DISH PISSALADIÈRE,
SOMETIMES CALLED “PROVENÇAL PIZZA” (FAC). ONIONS ARE USED IN THE CATALAN SAUCES SOFREGIT AND
SAMFAINA (FAC). IN TUNISIA, A FERMENTED ONION PASTE CALLED “HROUS” IS USED TO FLAVOR COUSCOUS,
SOUPS, AND STEWS (FAC). THE PAPERY OUTER SKINS, CALLED “SHUSKI” IN SLAVIC MACEDONIA, ARE USED AS
A DYE FOR COLORING EASTER EGGS, AND IN EGYPT THEY ARE USED TO COLOR AND FLAVOR EGGS CALLED “HAMINE”
(FAC). SHALLOTS PRODUCE A DARK, RICH-HUED DYE (FAC). ONION SKINS ARE USED AS A SMOKE FLAVORING
(FAC). THE LEAVES OF SOME CULTIVARS ARE WIDELY USED AS SCALLIONS. IN CATALONIA, THE LARGE SHOOTS
CALLED “CALÇOTS” OR “SPRUNZALE,” SPROUTED FROM BULBS PLANTED IN TRENCHES, ARE BLANCHED AND EATEN
RAW WITH BREAD, GRILLED, OR USED FOR FLAVORING BEANS AND SAUCES (FAC). SPROUTED SEEDS USED IN SALADS
AND ON SANDWICHES.
COOKING ONIONS CHANGES SOME OF THE PUNGENT SULFUR COMPOUNDS INTO SUGARS, MAKING THE COOKED
ONION SWEETER AND BLANDER. AS WITH GARLIC, I PERSONALLY BELIEVE THE FRESH IS BETTER MEDICINE AND
SPICE. BUT IN THE KITCHEN, IF NOT THE MEDICINE CHEST, 1 TBSP MINCED DRY ONION EQUALS THE FLAVOR OF
A QUARTER CUP MINCED FRESH ONION, AND 1 TBSP ONION POWDER MOISTENED WITH WATER EQUALS THE FLAVOR
A MEDIUM SIZED ONION (RIN). AS WITH GARLIC, I TREAT THE COOKED AND RAW ONION AS TWO DIFFERENT
MEDICINES AND TWO DIFFERENT SPICES, AND OFTEN ADD BOTH, RAW AND COOKED, TO SOUPS AND SALADS.
RINZLER (1990) ADVISES THAT IT TAKES SOME 8 LB OF FRESH ONION TO MAKE 1 LB OF DRY ONIONS. DRIED
ONIONS ARE AVAILABLE AS ONION FLAKES, ONION POWDER, AND ONION SALT.
WHAT TO DO TO AVOID TEARS? JOSEPH ET AL. (2002) SUGGEST HOLDING A PIECE OF BREAD BETWEEN THE
TEETH WHILE DICING. SOME OF THE RISING FUMES ARE ABSORBED BY THE BREAD BEFORE REACHING YOUR EYES.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
YOU MIGHT ALSO TRY CHILLING THE ONION BEFORE CUTTING, REDUCING THE VOLATILITY OF THE LACHRIMATORY
COMPOUNDS. AND RINSE YOUR KNIFE UNDER COLD WATER BEFORE CHOPPING (JNU). I’VE ALSO HEARD THAT
BREATHING THROUGH YOUR MOUTH, INSTEAD OF YOUR NOSE, HELPS, TOO.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (ONION) — PROPAGATED BY SEEDS, DRY SETS, OR TRANSPLANTS, THE THREE METHODS BEING
USED FOR COMMERCIAL ONIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. SOIL PREPARATIONS FOR GROWING ONIONS CONSISTS
OF PLOWING, DISCING, BED-SHAPING, PRE-PLANT IRRIGATION, FERTILIZATION, AND SOMETIMES DITCHING.
BED-SHAPING AND PLANTING ARE USUALLY DONE WITH A SLED-TYPE PLANTER. WHEN PLANTING IS SHALLOW,
IRRIGATING AFTER PLANTING MAY BE NECESSARY. PRE-IRRIGATION IS USUALLY PRACTICED IN FALL-PLANTED
(OCTOBER) ONIONS TO MAKE SOIL MOST WORKABLE AND TO GERMINATE WEEDS BEFORE FINAL LAND
PREPARATION. IN SANDY LOAMS OF THE PUNJAB, MAXIMUM BULB SIZES AND YIELDS WERE RECORDED WITH
A COMBINATION OF 112 KG/HA N, 56 P2O5, AND 25 K2O. THIS RETURN WAS ALSO BEST FROM AN
ECONOMICAL POINT OF VIEW. IN NEBRASKA STUDIES, WEEDS ALLOWED TO GROW IN THE ROW FOR 2, 4, 6,
AND 8 WEEKS AFTER ONION EMERGENCE REDUCED ONION YIELDS 20, 20, 40, AND 65%, RESPECTIVELY.
THE WEED CHECK YIELDED 12 TONS BIOMASS COMPARED TO 40 MT ONIONS PER ACRE IN THE WEEDED
PLOTS. WEED BIOMASS AT 4 WEEKS WAS 690 KG/HA, BUT 3,530 KG/HA AFTER 8 WEEKS. DEVELOPMENT
OF HERBICIDES FOR PRE-EMERGENCE AND POST-EMERGENCE ENABLES THE GROWER TO CULTIVATE LARGER
ACREAGE, AS MUCH HAND-WEEDING AND HOEING ARE ELIMINATED. ONION SETS MAY BE DROPPED BY
HAND INTO SHALLOW FURROWS, BUT ON COMMERCIAL ONION FARMS, MACHINES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO
MAKE FURROWS, DROP SETS, AND COVER THEM IN ONE OPERATION. FOR MECHANICAL PLANTING, SETS MUST
BE GRADED FOR UNIFORM SIZE. SETS ARE SPACED 6.5–9 CM APART, IN ROWS 30–40 CM APART. ONION
GROWERS ARE PLANTING FEWER SETS AND PREFERRING ONION TRANSPLANTS GROWN FROM SEED. THESE ARE
ABOUT 1 CM IN DIAMETER AND ABOUT 15 CM TALL WHEN TRANSPLANTED. ONIONS MAY ALSO BE PROPAGATED
BY BULBS, WHICH ARE SLICED ACROSS THE TOP, THEREBY PRODUCING 6–10 SHOOTS, WHICH MATURE IN
ABOUT 3 MONTHS. ONION CROPS MUST BE KEPT WEEDED AND WATERED BUT WELL DRAINED. SEED
PRODUCTION, USING MALE STERILE SELECTIONS, SHOULD BE ISOLATED FROM OTHER ONION CROPS BY AT LEAST
1000 M (DAD).
FROM SEEDING TO BULB MATURITY IS 100–140 DAYS, DEPENDING ON CV AND WEATHER. SPRING ONIONS
SHOULD BE HARVESTED MUCH EARLIER (30–45 DAYS). AS THEY MATURE, ONIONS CEASE TO PRODUCE NEW LEAVES
AND ROOTS. FOOD IN THE LEAVES MOVES TO THE BULBS, AND THE GREEN TOPS WEAKEN AND FALL OVER. BEST
TIME TO HARVEST A FIELD IS WHEN ONE QUARTER TO ONE THIRD OF TOPS HAVE FALLEN OVER. A SMALL ONION
PLOW MAY BE USED TO LOOSEN THE BULBS. IN MUCKY LAND, BULBS ARE EASILY PULLED BY HAND; IN IRRIGATED
AREAS, WATER MAY BE USED TO SOFTEN THE SOIL A DAY OR SO BEFORE HARVESTING. PULLED ONIONS ARE PUT IN
WINDROWS WITH THE BULBS SHADED BY THE TOPS TO MINIMIZE SCALDING FROM THE SUN. ONIONS ARE THEN
TRANSPORTED TO STORAGE HOUSES WHERE THEY ARE CURED BY FORCED VENTILATION, BEING CONSIDERED CURED
WHEN THEY HAVE LOST 3–5% OF THEIR WEIGHT. HIGH TEMPERATURE AND HIGH HUMIDITY DURING THE CURING,
WITH GOOD AIR CIRCULATION, FAVOR DEVELOPMENT OF DESIRABLE SKIN COLOR. SPROUTING OF STORED BULBS CAN
BE REDUCED BY SPROUT SUPPRESSANTS. GLOBE ONIONS CAN BE HELD FOR 6–8 MONTHS, BERMUDA TYPES FOR
ONLY 1–2 MONTHS, AT 0ΟC. A RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF 65–70% IS RECOMMENDED FOR ONION STORAGE.
HUMIDITY UP TO 85% HAS BEEN SATISFACTORY. GREEN ONIONS ARE HARVESTED AS NEEDED. THEY ARE PULLED
AND BUNCHED, THE ROOTS SOMETIMES PRUNED A BIT, BUT THE LEAVES LEFT INTACT. ONION YIELDS VARY WIDELY,
E.G., 1900 KG/HA IN HONDURAS, 27,650 KG/HA IN CHILE, AND UP TO 29,000 KG/HA IN U.S. THE WORLD
AVERAGE IS ABOUT 12,000 KG/HA IN 1979.
CHEMISTRY (ONION) — ACCORDING TO HAGER’S HANDBOOK (1969–1979), ONION CONTAINS
0.005–0.015% EO, METHYLALLIIN, DIHYDROALLIIN (PROPYLALLIIN), AND CYCLOALLIIN. THE COLORED EPIDERMAL LAYER MAY CONTAIN 4% QUERCETIN, 1% SPIRAEOSIDE, 0.45% PROTOCATECHUIC ACID, PHLOROGLUCIN, PROTOCATECHUIC METHYL ESTER. LEAVES CONTAIN QUERCETIN, SPIRAEOSIDE, FERULIC ACID ESTER,
AND CAFFEIC ACID. CELL WALLS CONTAIN MANNAN, PECTIN, PENTOSANE, FRUCTOSANE, MYROSINASE, AND
PEROXIDASE. MOST ALLIUM SPECIES EXHIBIT ANTIOXIDATIVE ACTIVITY IN A LINOLEIC-ACID MODEL SYSTEM,
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AND ONION AND GARLIC SHOW IT, EVEN IN MINCED PORK. RUTIN IS SAID TO BE ANTIATHEROGENIC,
ANTIEDEMIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTITHROMBOGENIC, AND HYPOTENSIVE (DAD). HERE ARE A FEW OF
THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ONION. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND
THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD)
AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALLICIN — ALCOHOL-DEHYDROGENDASE-INHIBITOR 500 ΜM; AMEBICIDE 30 ΜG/ML; ANTHELMINTHIC; ANTIAGGREGANT 0.1–1 ΜM; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC 0.05–0.1 MG/KG ORL HMN; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 27 ΜG/ML,
500 ΜG/ML; ANTIDIABETIC; ANTIFLU; ANTIGLAUCOMIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC
31+ ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE; ANTILYMPHOMA; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL MIC = 1.67 MG/ML;
ANTINEURALGIC; ANTIOXIDANT 1.8 ΜG/ML; ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC67 = 50 ΜM; ANTIRADICULAR 1.8 ΜG/ML; ANTISARCOMIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISHIGELLIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC MIC = 27 ΜG/ML;
ANTITRIGLYCERIDE 0.05–0.1 MG/KG ORL HMN; ANTITUBERCULAR MIC = 1.67 MG/ML; ANTITUMOR; ANTIVIRAL;
APOPTOTIC 31+ ΜM; CANDIDICIDE MIC 7 ΜG/ML; CHOLINESTERASE-INHIBITOR 500 ΜM; CYCLOOXYGENASEINHIBITOR; FUNGICIDE; GRAM(+)-ICIDE 8–12 PPM; GRAM(–)-ICIDE 8–12 PPM; HEPATOTOXIC 100 MG/KG/
DAY (= 500 CLOVES A DAY); HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC IC37–72 = 162 ΜG/ML, 0.05–0.1 MG/KG ORL HMN,
IC50 = 9 ΜM; HYPOGLYCEMIC 0.1 MG/KG; HYPOLIPIDEMIC ID50 = 10 ΜM; HYPOTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; INSECTICIDE; INSULIN-SPARING 100 MG/KG/MAN; LARVICIDE; LIPOLYTIC 4–6 MG/DAY; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR ED = 25 ΜG/ML; MUCOKINETIC; NEMATICIDE; NO-INHIBITOR IC50 = 2.5–5 ΜM; PAPAININHIBITOR 500 ΜM; PHAGOCYTOTIC; PROOXIDANT; SUCCINATE-DEHYDROGENASE-INHIBITOR 500 ΜM; TRICHOMONICIDE; UREASE-INHIBITOR 500 ΜM; VIBRIOCIDE; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR 500 ΜM; LD50 =
309 MG/KG ORL MUS (MALE); LD50 = 363 MG/KG ORL MUS (FEMALE); LD50 = 60MG/KG IVN MUS; 120
MG/KG SCU MUS.
ALLIIN — ANTIAGGREGANT IC100 = 60 ΜG/ML; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIDIABETIC 200 MG/KG; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC
0.5 ΜG/ML; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTISARCOMIC 1–3 MG IMS RAT; ANTISEPTIC;
ANTITHROMBIC; ANTITUMOR; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC; LIPOLYTIC 200
MG/KG ORL RAT; LIPOLYTIC 7–11 MG/DAY.
CEPAENE — ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; LIPOXYGENASEINHIBITOR.
PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID — ANTIARRHYTHMIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICLASTOGENIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIISCHEMIC; ANTIOPHIDIC; ANTIOXIDANT; 2
/3 QUERCETIN, 10 × ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL; ANTIPEROXIDANT IC50 = >100 ΜM; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTISPASMODIC
EC50 = 4.6–17 ΜM; ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTITUMOR (MOUTH); ANTITUMOR (SKIN); ANTITUSSIVE;
ANTIVIRAL; CARCINOGENIC; CHEMOPREVENTIVE 100 PPM ORL RAT; FUNGICIDE 500 ΜG/ML; GLUTATHIONEDEPLETING; HEPATOTOXIC; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; NEPHROTOXIC; PHAGOCYTOTIC; PROSTAGLANDIGENIC;
SECRETAGOGUE; UBIQUICT.
QUERCETIN — SEE ALSO ALPINIA OFFICINARUM.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALLIUM SATIVUM L. (ALLIACEAE)
AJO, GARLIC, ROCAMBOLE, SERPENT GARLIC
MEDICINAL USES (GARLIC) — I THINK THIS IS THE NUMBER ONE SPICE MEDICINE, BUT CLOSELY RIVALED BY
GINGER, ONION, RED AND BLACK PEPPERS, AND TURMERIC. GARLIC PRODUCTS OCCUPY A >$1-BILLION-A-YEAR
CATEGORY (JAIN AND APITZ-CASTRO, 1994). AMAGASE ET AL. (2001) GIVE A TABLE PURPORTEDLY LISTING THE
TOP 15 SUPPLEMENTS IN THE U.S., WITH GARLIC ON TOP AT 28%, GINSENG AT 14%, GINKGO AT 13%, ECHINACEA
AT 11%, CHAMOMILE AND ST. JOHN’S-WORT AT 8%, CAYENNE AT 7%, AND GINGER AT 6% (THE OTHERS WERE
CHEMICALS OR THE LIKE).
STRANGE THAT SO MANY OF THE SCIENTISTS AT THE SPONSORED GARLIC SYMPOSIUM WARN ABOUT THE
HAZARDS OF GARLIC IN ITS NATURAL STATE, RATHER SUGGESTING THE AGED GARLIC EXTRACT (AGE), WHICH
SUPPORTED THE SYMPOSIUM. AMAGASE ET AL. (2001), CITE THE FOLLOWING ADVERSE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED
WITH RAW GARLIC AND GARLIC POWDER (HINTING BUT NOT SAYING THAT THEY ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH AGE):
(1) DIARRHEA AND OTHER STOMACH DISORDERS, (2) DECREASE OF SERUM PROTEIN AND CALCIUM (ONION
APPARENTLY RAISES CALCIUM (JAD), (3) ANEMIA, (4) BRONCHIAL ASTHMA, (5) CONTACT DERMATITIS, AND
(6) INHIBITION OF SPERMATOGENESIS. ADDITIONALLY, THEY ALL SEEM RATHER CONCERTED IN THEIR EFFORT TO
BRING DOWN A FORMERLY UNQUESTIONED TRUTH. FOR EXAMPLE, IN 1997, WE READ, “ALLICIN IS THE MOST
IMPORTANT SUBSTANCE IN GARLIC IN TERMS OF BOTH AMOUNT AND MEDICINAL POWER” (FULDER, 1997). BUT
IN THE RECENT GARLIC SYMPOSIUM (MILNER AND RIVLIN, 2001), “ALLICIN CAN BE AN OXIDIZING AGENT
THAT…CAN DAMAGE THE INTESTINAL LINING AND THE STOMACH” (AMAGASE ET AL., 2001). I’LL CONTINUE TO
TAKE MY GARLIC COOKED IN FOODS, POWDERED ON TOASTS AND SALADS AND PIZZAS, AND ALMOST ALWAYS
ACCOMPANIED BY ITS MILDER COUSIN, THE ONION, AND OCCASIONALLY LEEKS AND SCALLIONS. ALL POSSESS
VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF USEFUL SULFUREOUS PHYTOCHEMICALS. AND IT IS CLEAR THAT AGE CONTAINS
MANY USEFUL COMPOUNDS IN DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS. THE SYMPOSIUM STRESSES THAT. AND I SUSPECT
THAT AGE, LIKE GARLIC AND ONIONS, CAN DECELERATE THE AGING PROCESS, SLOWING OXIDATIVE DAMAGE,
AND BOOSTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM.
THE GREAT BOOK BY KOCH AND LAWSON (1996) TABULATES NUMEROUS CLINICAL TRIALS, MAKING ME
THINK THAT GARLIC IS GREAT, BOTH PREVENTIVELY AND CURATIVELY, FOR EARLY STAGES OF CANCER, CARDIOPATHY,
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DIABETES, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE, HIGH CHOLESTEROL, AND INFECTIONS LIKE YEAST. READ THE BOOK AND THE
AGE SYMPOSIUM, AND YOU’LL KNOW A LOT MORE ABOUT GARLIC AND ITS PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR UTILITY,
AND SURPRISING VARIATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS. BUT THE FOLKLORE HAS BEEN WITH US FOR YEARS.
ASIAN INDIANS USE THE OIL AS EARDROPS AND FOR ATONIC DYSPEPSIA, COLIC, GAS, AND SKIN RASHES.
RUSSIANS APPLY RAW GARLIC TO CORNS FOR 12–18 HR (LIBSTER, 2002). BOTH GARLIC AND ONION ARE
REPORTED TO INHIBIT PLATELET AGGREGATION. GARLIC JUICE AND EO DEMONSTRATED ANTIAGGREGANT AND
ANTIHYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC ACTIVITIES IN HUMANS SUBJECTS (MPI). IN SCIENCE, WE READ THAT GARLIC
AND ONIONS HAVE LONG BEEN REPUTED TO HAVE SUCH MYSTICAL POWERS AS THE ABILITY TO STIMULATE BILE
PRODUCTION, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, ALLEVIATE HYPERTENSION, SPEED HEALING OF GUNSHOT WOUNDS, CURE
SCORPION BITES, FRECKLES, AND THE COMMON COLD. GARLIC IS CONSIDERED APHRODISIAC, CARMINATIVE,
DIAPHORETIC, DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC. IT ACTS AS AN ANALGESIC IN HEADACHES,
EARACHES, AND RHEUMATIC PAINS. THE JUICE IS RUBEFACIENT AND, MIXED WITH OIL, IS USEFUL FOR CURING
SKIN DISEASES, ULCERS, WOUNDS, INSECT BITES, AND AS EARDROPS FOR EARACHE. AS A BACTERICIDAL
EXPECTORANT, IT IS USEFUL IN THE TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS. MANY CLAIM THAT DEODORIZED GARLIC IS
AS EFFECTIVE A MEDICINE AS THE “STINKING ROSE.” THOSE WHO ATTRIBUTE THE MEDICINAL ACTIVITIES TO
MALODOROUS SULFUR COMPOUNDS MIGHT DISAGREE. “PROCESSED GARLIC IS NOT AS EFFECTIVE AS FRESH
GARLIC” (RIN). OTHER FOLK MEDICINAL USES ARE REPORTED IN MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE BIBLE (DUKE,
1999), THE CRC HANDBOOK OF ALTERNATIVE CASH CROPS (DAD), AND THE GREAT KOCH AND LAWSON
BOOK (1996).
CHARAK, THE FATHER OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINE, CLAIMED THAT GARLIC “MAINTAINS THE FLUIDITY OF BLOOD
AND STRENGTHENS THE HEART” (RAHMAN, 2001). AND TODAY, THE JAMA WARNS US THAT IT MAINTAINS THE
FLUIDITY OF THE BLOOD (MIGHT CAUSE A BLEEDING INCIDENT). YES, JAMA RECOMMENDS ASPIRIN FOR THINNING
THE BLOOD BUT WARNS ABOUT THE PERILS OF GARLIC. AS MCCALEB (2001) SO APTLY PUTS IT, THE JAMA AUTHORS
WARN ABOUT THE “USE OF GARLIC SUPPLEMENT FOR SURGERY PATIENTS BASED ON A SINGLE CASE THAT DID NOT
EVEN INVOLVE THE USE OF A GARLIC SUPPLEMENT, BUT EXTREME CONSUMPTION OF A FOOD. ONE ELDERLY MAN
ATE 15 GRAMS OF RAW GARLIC — OR ABOUT FIVE MEDIUM SIZED CLOVES — PER DAY FOR AN EXTENDED PERIOD
OF TIME AND SUBSEQUENTLY EXPERIENCED BLEEDING PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY, POSSIBLY BUT NOT NECESSARILY
CONNECTED WITH THE GARLIC. THIS ONE INCIDENT, MORE THAN A DECADE OLD, IS THE ONLY CASE ON RECORD
THAT SUPPORTS THE AUTHOR’S ARGUMENT AGAINST GARLIC” (MCCALEB, 2001). GARLIC IS CITED IN THE EGYPTIAN
CODEX EBERS, A 35-CENTURY-OLD DOCUMENT, AS USEFUL IN CANCER AND HEART DISEASE (RAHMAN, 2001).
AND TODAY, IT IS ONE OF THE MOST PROMISING HERBS FOR CANCER AND CARDIOPATHY (JAD).
RIVLIN (2001) COMMENTS, “ACCORDING TO THE BIBLE, THE JEWISH SLAVES IN EGYPT WERE FED GARLIC
AND OTHER ALLIUM VEGETABLES, APPARENTLY TO GIVE THEM STRENGTH AND INCREASE THEIR PRODUCTIVITY,
AS IT WAS BELIEVED TO DO FOR THE INDIGENOUS EGYPTIAN CITIZENS. THE JEWISH PEOPLE MUST HAVE
DEVELOPED SOME FONDNESS FOR GARLIC, BECAUSE WHEN THEY LEFT FROM EGYPT WITH MOSES, IT IS WRITTEN
“THAT THEY MISSED…THE ONIONS AND THE GARLIC” (NUM. 11:5) (RIVLIN, 2001). THIS SEEMS AN APT
PLACE TO QUOTE FULDER’S COMMENT, “GARLIC, WITH ITS SULFUREOUS NATURE, IS CLEARLY BOTH FIERCE AND
FRIENDLY…. HAVING BROUGHT ABOUT THE FALL OF MAN, SATAN STEPPED FROM THE GARDEN OF EDEN;
WHERE HIS RIGHT FOOT FIRST RESTED, THE ONION PLANT SPRANG UP, AND WHERE HIS LEFT FOOT MET THE
GROUND, THERE GREW GARLIC” (FULDER, 1997).
EVEN ANCIENT MEDICAL TEXTS FROM CHINA, EGYPT, GREECE, INDIA, AND ROME EACH PRESCRIBED GARLIC
AS MEDICINE. IN MANY CULTURES, GARLIC WAS GIVEN TO STRENGTHEN AND INCREASE WORK CAPACITY FOR
LABORERS. HIPPOCRATES, THE REVERED PHYSICIAN, PRESCRIBED GARLIC FOR SEVERAL AILMENTS. GARLIC WAS GIVEN
TO THE ORIGINAL OLYMPIC ATHLETES, PERHAPS ONE OF THE FIRST ERGOGENIC OR “PERFORMANCE ENHANCING”
HERBS. CULTURES THAT DEVELOPED WITHOUT CONTACT WITH ONE ANOTHER ARRIVED AT SIMILAR CONCLUSIONS ABOUT
THE GARLIC AND ITS EFFICACY. MODERN SCIENCE TENDS TO CONFIRM MANY OF THE BELIEFS OF ANCIENT CULTURES
REGARDING GARLIC, DEFINING MECHANISMS OF ACTION AND EXPLORING GARLIC’S POTENTIAL FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT (RIVLIN, 2001). STILL, TOO MUCH OF THE MEDICAL ESTABLISHMENT IN THE U.S. WRITES
IT OFF AS FOLK SUPERSTITION, DANGEROUS AT CAUSING BLEEDING INCIDENTS AND INTERFERING WITH HARD CORE
PHARMACEUTICALS. I THINK THE PHARMACEUTICALS ARE MORE DANGEROUS, MORE EXPENSIVE, AND KILL MORE
AMERICANS (JAD).
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
LOUIS PASTEUR DESCRIBED THE ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF GARLIC AND ONION JUICES. GARLIC HAS BEEN
USED WORLDWIDE TO FIGHT BACTERIA. ALLIUM VEGETABLES, PARTICULARLY GARLIC, ARE BROADLY ANTIBIOTIC
AGAINST GRAM(+) AND GRAM(–) BACTERIA; (1) RAW GARLIC JUICE IS EFFECTIVE AGAINST MANY INTESTINAL
BACTERIA RESPONSIBLE FOR DIARRHEA IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS; (2) GARLIC IS EFFECTIVE AGAINST STRAINS
THAT ARE RESISTANT TO ANTIBIOTICS; (3) GARLIC IS SYNERGISTIC WITH ANTIBIOTICS; (4) GARLIC DOES NOT
GENERATE RESISTANCE; (5) GARLIC MAY PREVENT TOXIN PRODUCTION BY MICROORGANISMS (SIVAM, 2001).
THE CLASSICAL ASSUMPTION OF MODERN PHARMACY AND PHARMACOGNOSY (WHAT I TERM THE “SILVER
BULLET MONOCHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY”) IS THAT SINGLE ENTITIES OR SIMPLE MIXES OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
ARE ASSUMED TO BE THE PRINCIPAL BIOACTIVE COMPONENT(S). ROSEN ET AL. (2001) STATE THAT, “IN A
NUTRACEUTICAL OR HERBAL PHILOSOPHY, GARLIC OR AGE IS IMPORTANT AS THE WHOLE HERB,” WHICH CONTAINS
MANY SULFUREOUS COMPOUNDS AND OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS ALL CONTRIBUTING TO THE OVERALL ANTIOXIDANT
AND OTHER BIOACTIVITIES. I’M MORE INCLINED TO THE HERBAL PHILOSOPHY, WHICH I TERM THE HOLISTIC
WHOLE HERBAL “SHOTGUN.” AND THE MORE AGED I GET, THE MORE MY AGED STOMACH APPRECIATES THE
AGE. WHEN CRUSHED WHOLE GARLIC ENTERS THE STOMACH ACID, IT DECOMPOSES INTO SEVERAL VOLATILE
COMPOUNDS INCLUDING DAS AND DADS. I SHARE ROSEN’S SURPRISE THAT CONSUMPTION OF RAW GARLIC,
NOT KNOWN TO CONTAIN P-CYMENE AND LIMONENE (A BREAST CANCER PREVENTIVE), QUICKLY LEADS TO
THEIR APPEARANCE IN THE BREATH. IT’S THE HOLISTIC WHOLE HERB WORKING WITH THE WHOLE HOLISTIC
HUMAN THAT RESULTS IN BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES (ROSEN ET AL., 2001).
AND OHNISHI ET AL. (2001), AFTER IN VIVO AND EX VIVO STUDIES, PROPOSE THAT A COCKTAIL OF
ANTIOXIDANTS COULD LESSEN THE INCIDENCE AND SEVERITY OF CRISIS AND REDUCE ANEMIA IN SICKLE CELL
DISEASE. A CLINICAL HERBALIST I KNOW CONCURRED THAT “USE OF ANTIOXIDANTS SLOWS PERMANENT SICKLING,
AND THE PERMANENTLY SICKLED CELLS CAUSE MICROHEMORRHAGE IN THE SPLEEN, AND SO ANTIOXIDANTS
DEFINITELY SLOW PROGRESSION OF THE DISEASE, AND GARLIC IS A GOOD ANTIOXIDANT” (A. K. TILLOTSEN,
PERS/COMM 2001). AND AGE INHIBITS THE ACTIVATION OF THE OXIDANT-INDUCED TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR,
NUCLEAR FACTOR (NF)-KAPPA B, WHICH HAS CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE IN HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS
GENE EXPRESSION (BOREK, 2001).
AND AGE MAY HAVE A ROLE IN PROTECTING AGAINST LOSS OF BRAIN FUNCTION IN AGING AND POSSESS
OTHER ANTIAGING EFFECTS, AS SUGGESTED BY ITS ABILITY TO INCREASE COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS, MEMORY, AND
LONGEVITY IN AGE-ACCELERATED MICE MODELS (BOREK, 2001). AND IT MAY HELP IN LOSS OF PENILE
FUNCTION AS WELL. GARLIC IS JUST ONE OF MANY TONIC SPICES, WITH EQUALLY MALODOROUS ASAFETIDA,
BLACK PEPPER, CARDAMOM, CAYENNE, CINNAMON, CLOVES, CUMIN, FENNEL, AND GINGER CONSIDERED TO
GENTLY STIMULATE THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM. EVEN IN THE ARABIC OR UNANI TIBB SYSTEM, GARLIC IS
SUGGESTED AS AN APHRODISIAC FOR LOW SEX DRIVE, AND EVEN AS A TONIC FOR THE ELDERLY (BERGNER, 1996).
THERE MAY BE A RATIONALE FOR THE GARLIC’S APHRODISIAC ACTIVITY IN KOCH AND LAWSON’S RATIONALE
FOR GARLIC’S HYPOTENSIVE ACTIVITY. AQUEOUS AND ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF GARLIC INCREASE THE PRODUCTION
OF NITRIC OXIDE, WHICH IS ASSOCIATED WITH DECREASED HYPERTENSION. IN VIVO, 4 G ORAL FRESH GARLIC
(CA. ONE CLOVE) CAN DOUBLE THE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHETASE ACTIVITY OF BLOOD PLATELETS IN 3 HR (KOCH
AND LAWSON, 1996). NITRIC OXIDE IS SAID TO BE NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE AND MAINTAIN AN ERECTION.
SOME PEOPLE EVEN RESORT TO NITROGLYCERINE PATCHES THAT CONTAIN NITRIC ACID TO HELP ACHIEVE
ERECTIONS. IN 1988, LAWSON ADDS THAT AMONG THE UNIQUE FEATURES OF GARLIC IS ITS HIGH CONTENT OF
FREE AMINO ACIDS “STRONGLY DOMINATED BY ARGININE” (LAWSON, 1998). ARGININE IS USED BY THE CELLS
THAT LINE THE ARTERY WALLS TO MANUFACTURE NITRIC OXIDE, WHICH FACILITATES BLOOD FLOW TO THE PENIS.
WITHOUT NITRIC OXIDE, ERECTIONS ARE IMPOSSIBLE.
THE CODEX EBERS, CA. 3500 B.P., IS ONE OF THE EARLIEST SOURCES INDICATING PRESCRIPTION OF
GARLIC TO TREAT ABNORMAL GROWTHS THAT PROBABLY REPRESENTED MALIGNANCIES OF ONE KIND OR ANOTHER.
THE CODEX ALSO SUGGESTED GARLIC, AS WE DO TODAY, FOR CIRCULATORY AILMENTS, GENERAL MALAISE,
AND INFESTATIONS WITH INSECTS AND PARASITES (RIVLIN, 2001). HIPPOCRATES PRESCRIBED EATING GARLIC
FOR UTERINE TUMORS. I’D BE QUICKER TO USE GARLIC THAN TO USE TAXOL, WERE I OF THE FEMALE GENDER.
THE BOWER MANUSCRIPT, DATING ABOUT 450 A.D. IN INDIA, SUGGESTED GARLIC FOR ABDOMINAL TUMORS.
SO MY BROTHER AND I, GENETICALLY TARGETED FOR COLON CANCER, TAKE A LOT OF FOOD FAMACY GARLIC.
AGE PROTECTS DNA AGAINST FREE RADICAL-MEDIATED DAMAGE AND MUTATIONS, INHIBITS MULTI-STEP
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CARCINOGENESIS, AND DEFENDS AGAINST IONIZING RADIATION AND UV-INDUCED DAMAGE, INCLUDING
PROTECTION AGAINST SOME FORMS OF UV-INDUCED IMMUNOSUPPRESSION. NCI FILES (HARTWELL, 1982)
REPORT THAT CANCER INCIDENCE IN FRANCE IS SUPPOSEDLY LOWEST WHERE GARLIC CONSUMPTION IS
GREATEST, THAT GARLIC EATERS IN BULGARIA DO NOT HAVE CANCER, AND THAT A PHYSICIAN IN VICTORIA,
BRITISH COLUMBIA, REPORTEDLY TREATED MALIGNANCIES BY PRESCRIBING GARLIC EATING. JUST INHALING
THE STALK IS SAID TO HELP UTERINE TUMORS, FIBROIDS, POLYPS, AND NEOPLASMS. A POULTICE OF THE BULB
IS SAID TO HELP TUMORS (BLADDER AND UTERUS), THE ROOT OINTMENT IS SAID TO HELP TUMORS AND CORNS,
THE JUICE TO HELP HARD SWELLINGS AND SKIN CANCER (BIB, DAD, JLH).
THERE IS STRONG ANIMAL AND IN VITRO EVIDENCE FOR ANTICARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF GARLIC AND/OR ITS
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS. EPIDEMIOLOGY ADDRESSES CANCERS OF THE STOMACH, COLON, HEAD AND NECK, LUNG,
BREAST, AND PROSTATE. NINETEEN STUDIES WERE REVIEWED REGARDING GARLIC CONSUMPTION AND CANCER
INCIDENCE. SITE-SPECIFIC CASE-CONTROL STUDIES OF STOMACH AND COLORECTAL CANCER, SUGGEST A PROTECTIVE EFFECT FOR RAW AND/OR COOKED GARLIC (FLEISCHAUER AND ARAB, 2001). HELICOBACTER PYLORI
IS CONSIDERED RESPONSIBLE FOR SOME STOMACH CANCERS AND ULCERS. THE INCIDENCE OF STOMACH CANCER
IS LOWER WHERE ALLIUM UPTAKE IS HIGH. IN VITRO, H. PYLORI IS SUSCEPTIBLE TO GARLIC EXTRACT. EVEN
SOME ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT H. PYLORI STRAINS ARE REDUCED BY GARLIC. GARLIC SHOULD BE STUDIED AS A
LOW-COST REMEDY FOR H. PYLORI (SIVAM, 2001).
HORIE ET AL. (2001) SHOW HOW GARLIC PREPARATIONS CAN EASE SOME OF THE SIDE EFFECTS OF
CHEMOTHERAPY. MORE IMPORTANTLY TO ME, LAMM AND RIGGS (2001) HINTED THAT GARLIC IMMUNOTHERAPY MIGHT BE CLINICALLY COMPARED TO BACILLUS CALMETTE-GUERIN (BCG) IMMUNOTHERAPY. THEY
SAID BCG WAS SUPERIOR TO CHEMOTHERAPY (DOXORUBICIN, MITOMYCIN, AND THIOTEPA) AND COMPARABLE
TO OTHER IMMUNOTHERAPIES (INTERLEUKIN-2, INTERFERON-ALPHA, AND THE INTERFERON INDUCER,
BROPRIMINE) FOR BLADDER CARCINOMA IN SITU. THEY DID NOT NECESSARILY SAY THAT GARLIC IS AS GOOD
AS BCG AT BOOSTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM BUT DID LIST SOME NICE GARLIC IMMUNOSTIMULATING
CREDENTIALS. GARLIC STIMULATES PROLIFERATION OF LYMPHOCYTES AND MACROPHAGE PHAGOCYTOSIS;
INDUCES THE INFILTRATION OF MACROPHAGES AND LYMPHOCYTES IN TRANSPLANTED TUMORS; INDUCES SPLENIC
HYPERTROPHY; STIMULATES RELEASE OF INTERLEUKIN-2, TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA, AND INTERFERONGAMMA; AND ENHANCES NATURAL KILLER CELL, KILLER CELL, AND LYMPHOKINE-ACTIVATED KILLER CELL ACTIVITY
(LAMM AND RIGGS, 2001).
SAY “CANCER” AND “CARDIOPROTECTION,” AND MANY AMERICANS THINK OF GARLIC. HYPOGLYCEMIC,
HYPOLIPIDEMIC, AND HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC EFFECTS, WITH ANTIANDROGENIC SIDE EFFECTS, HAVE BEEN
DOCUMENTED. “EVEN A MODEST REDUCTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE WITH GARLIC COULD SAVE BILLIONS
OF DOLLARS ANNUALLY IN THE UNITED STATES.” HEART ATTACKS RUN $25,000 TO $75,000 EACH (BERGNER,
1996). NEGATIVE NUMBERS IN THE SOUTHERN MEDICAL JOURNAL BELOW INDICATE THAT DIETARY THERAPY
SAVES MONEY BY REDUCING OTHER MEDICAL PROBLEMS AS WELL. GARLIC IS ONE OF THE BEST FOR CHOLESTEROL,
ACCORDING TO BERGNER AND MYSELF. SHARING MY OPINION THAT FRESH GARLIC IS BEST, ESPECIALLY AS AN
ANTIBIOTIC, BERGNER ADDS THAT EVERY FORM OF GARLIC TESTED HAS CARDIOVASCULAR BENEFITS AND ANTICANCER PROPERTIES. POWDERS CAN VARY FOURFOLD IN ALLICIN CONTENT, AND GARLIC OIL INGREDIENTS CAN
VARY TWENTYFOLD. IF YOU WANT A COMMERCIAL PRODUCT, HOWEVER, YOU MIGHT SELECT A NAME BRAND,
SUCH AS GARLICIN, KWAI, OR KYOLIC. THESE HAVE ALL BEEN TESTED IN CLINICAL TRIALS OR OTHER STUDIES
AND HAVE THERAPEUTIC LEVELS OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS (BERGNER, 1996).
AJOENE HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED AS ONE ACTIVE INGREDIENT IN GARLIC. AJOENE MAY BE AS EFFECTIVE AS
ASPIRIN AT PREVENTING BLOOD CLOTS, HEART ATTACKS, AND STROKES (RIN). JAIN AND APITZ-CASTRO (1994)
CITE STUDIES SHOWING THAT AJOENE IS ABSENT IN “ANY OF THE COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ‘GARLIC PREPARATIONS’ INCLUDING THE FERMENTED ‘AGED’ GARLIC EXTRACT (E.G., KYOLIC), FREEZE DRIED GARLIC, OR EVEN
FRESH GARLIC BULBS.” THEY SUGGEST THAT FOR “CLEARING ARTERIES,” ONLY AGED ETHER EXTRACTS OR HEALTHIER
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS EXHIBIT ANTIPLATELET ACTIVITY, WHICH CAN BE ASCRIBED TO THE POTENT AJOENE (SPI).
AJOENE CAN ALSO INTERFERE WITH ABSORPTION OF DIETARY FAT BY INHIBITING GASTRIC LIPASE. AJOENE
ANTIPLATELET ACTIVITY MIGHT EVEN UNDERLIE THE ANTICANCER ACTIVITY. AGGREGATION OF HOST PLATELETS
BY CIRCULATING TUMOR CELLS COULD BE IMPORTANT IN METASTASIS (FUKUSHIMA ET AL., 2001). FOUR
STUDIED GARLIC PREPARATIONS SIGNIFICANTLY ENHANCED NATURAL KILLER (NK) AND KILLER CELL ACTIVITIES
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OF THE SPLEEN CELLS OF TUMOR-BEARING MICE. DIFFERENT TYPES OF GARLIC PREPARATIONS HAVE DIFFERENT
PHARMACOLOGIC PROPERTIES (KASUGA ET AL., 2001, X11238821).
THE ANTIBIOTIC ACTIVITY OF THE GARLIC IS AS GOOD AS THAT OF MANY SYNTHETICS. BUT HERE IN THE
U.S., WE GIVE OUR CATTLE ANTIBIOTICS, WORSENING ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN OUR COUNTRY. IN ITALY, THEY
GIVE GARLIC TO THE PIGS AS AN ANTIBIOTIC, STIMULATING GROWTH WITHOUT AFFECTING THE TASTE OF THE PORK
NEGATIVELY. GARLIC PROVED ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES
CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999). GARLIC EXTRACTS ARE FUNGICIDAL AGAINST CANDIDA ALBICANS, AND LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF GARLIC EXTRACT ARE LETHAL AND/OR INHIBITORY TO NUMEROUS STRAINS OF CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS. AS AN VERMIFUGE FOR TAPEWORMS, GARLIC IS EATEN ALONG WITH PRESCRIBED MEDICINE. LIBSTER
(2002) REPORTS 79% OF 34 MEN SYMPTOM FREE OF TINEA PEDIS AFTER 7 DAYS ON ACUAGEL (A CREAM
WITH AJOENE, THE ORGANIC TRISULFUR COMPOUND IN GARLIC). THE OTHER 21% WERE SYMPTOM FREE AFTER
7 MORE DAYS (LIBSTER, 2002).
GARLIC VS. CIPRO
CAN “RUSSIAN PENICILLIN” (GARLIC) PREVENT OR REDUCE THE LIKELIHOOD OF GETTING ANTHRAX IF YOU HAVE
BEEN HIT WITH 8000 SPORES? I MAY BE THE ONLY HERBALIST IN AMERICA WHO SAYS YES, FOR AT LEAST FOUR
REASONS:
1. IT BOOSTS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM (E.G., LIBSTER NOTES THAT ONE FRACTION, “A PROTEIN ISOLATED
FROM AGED GARLIC EXTRACT, IS AN EFFICIENT IMMUNOPOTENTIATOR”). EVEN THE CDC AND THE
FDA AND THE NEWSCASTERS NOTE THAT AGED OR SICK PEOPLE WITH DEPRESSED IMMUNE SYSTEMS
ARE MORE LIABLE TO GET ANTHRAX THAN HEALTHIER CITIZENS. AS NOTED ELSEWHERE, GARLIC BOOSTS
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN SEVERAL WAYS (GARLIC SYMPOSIUM, 2001).
2. THE SULFUR-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS HAVE BEEN PROVEN ANTISEPTIC AND BACTERICIDAL OR BACTERIOSTATIC TO GRAM(+) BACTERIA AND OTHER SPECIES OF BACILLUS.
3. THE STRONG GARLIC AROMA REPELS GERM-LADEN PEOPLE, IF NOT GERMS THEMSELVES.
4. WHOLE POLYCHEMICAL GARLIC IS LESS LIKELY TO GENERATE BACTERIAL RESISTANCE THAN A
MONOCHEMICAL LIKE CIPRO. LIBSTER (2002) NOTES THAT GARLIC, MAYBE EVEN JUST ITS
MONOCHEMICAL ALLICIN, IS EFFECTIVE AGAINST CERTAIN MULTI-DRUG-RESISTANT BACTERIA.
LIBSTER (2002) ADDUCES SOME MORE EVIDENCE THAT I HERE RECYCLE, HOPING TO CONVINCE CDC AND
FDA TO AT LEAST EXAMINE THE GARLIC IN COMPARATIVE TRIALS BEFORE THEY DISMISS IT AS USELESS. WITH THE
BIG MIX OF A DOZEN SULPHUR DRUGS, POSSIBLY SYNERGISTIC, GARLIC MAY BE 1/100TH, MAYBE 1/10TH, OR
POSSIBLY HALF AS POTENT AS CIPRO OR PENICILLIN, NEITHER OF WHICH HAS BEEN PROVEN CLINICALLY AGAINST
ANTHRAX. NEITHER THE PHARMACOPHILIC CDC, NOR FDA, NOR THE HERBOPHILIC ABC, AHPA, NOR HRF
CAN BE SURE WHICH IS MORE POTENT UNTIL THEY HAVE BEEN CLINICALLY COMPARED. WHY ISN’T AFFORDABLE,
SAFE GARLIC BEING INVESTIGATED AS THE HERBAL ALTERNATIVE TO CIPRO, DOXICYCLIN, OR PENICILLIN INSTEAD OF
RELATIVE EXPENSE OF SAVING A YEAR OF LIFE IN PATIENTS
WITH ELEVATED SERUM CHOLESTEROL
DIETARY ADVICE (E.G., GARLIC) –$2500
NIACIN –$1250
PSYLLIUM HUSK –$650
LOVASTATIN $50,000
COLESTIPOL $75,000
COLESTYRAMINE $90,000
GEMFRIBROZOL $110,000
SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM BERGNER, P., THE HEALING POWER OF
GARLIC, PRIMA PUBLISHING, ROCKLIN, CA, 1996.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BEING RELEGATED TO THE ALLOPATHIC DUMPSTER? I LIKE RALPH MOSS’ ANSWER, “IF YOU ARE LOOKING FOR WHY
ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES ARE RELEGATED TO THE ‘JUNK HEAP’ BY ALLOPATHIC MEDICINE, IT IS BECAUSE THESE
SUBSTANCES CANNOT GENERATE MEGAPROFITS THE WAY PATENTED PHARMACEUTICALS CAN” (MOSS, 2001).
CENTURIES AGO, BEFORE SYNTHETICS AND ANTIBIOTICS, RUSSIANS BELIEVED THAT GARLIC AMULETS PROTECTED
THEM FROM THE EVIL SPIRITS THAT CAUSE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. IT IS STILL RESPECTED IN RUSSIA FOR ITS
ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIPARASITIC, AND ANTIVIRAL PROPERTIES. IT WAS DURING WORLD WAR II, WHEN THEY USED
GARLIC IN THE FIELD IN TREATING WOUNDS, REPORTEDLY PREVENTING GANGRENE AND SEPSIS, THAT THE NAME
“RUSSIAN PENICILLIN” EVOLVED. CURRENT RUSSIAN MEDICINE USES GARLIC FOR COLIC, DYSPEPSIA, ENTEROSIS,
AND PUTREFACTIVE BACTERIA IN THE INTESTINES. TRADITIONAL RUSSIAN HERBALISTS USE GARLIC TO PREVENT COLD,
FLU, AND OTHER VIRUSES. AS TO BACTERIA, GARLIC OR ITS ALLICIN IS APPARENTLY EFFECTIVE AGAINST CERTAIN
MDR-BACTERIA. I SPECULATE THAT THIS IS BECAUSE IT CONTAINS DOZENS OF ANTISEPTIC COMPOUNDS, SEVERAL
WORKING IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS.
LIBSTER (2002) NOTES THAT, IN ENGLAND, GARLIC VINEGAR WAS TAKEN “INTERNALLY TO PREVENT BEING
INFECTED WITH THE PLAGUE.” I HAD HEARD IT WAS ALSO APPLIED TOPICALLY TO THIEVES LOOTING BODIES OF THE
DEAD. LIBSTER NOTES THAT, HISTORICALLY, IT WAS ALSO USED FOR INFECTIONS DUE TO POLLUTED DRINKING WATER,
AND SPECIFICALLY FOR LEPROSY. FOR SMALLPOX, IT WAS CHOPPED AND APPLIED TO THE FEET BOUND IN LINEN
CLOTH. PURPLE-SKINNED GARLIC (PROBABLY WITH ANTHOCYANINS) IS BELIEVED MOST EFFECTIVE IN TCM FOR
AMEBA AND MICROBES. GARLIC EXTRACTS HAVE BEEN SHOWN EFFECTIVE AGAINST HELICOBACTER PYLORI IN VIVO,
WHEREAS GARLIC OIL (OFTEN LACKS THE SULFUR COMPOUNDS) WAS SHOWN INEFFECTIVE CLINICALLY (LIBSTER, 2002).
INDICATIONS (GARLIC) — ABSCESS (1; DAA; PNC); ACNE (F; FAD); ADENOSIS (F; JLH); AEGILOPS (F;
JLH); AGING (1; PH2); ALLERGY (1; AKT; FNF); ALOPECIA (1; WHO; WO2); ALTITUDE SICKNESS (F;
KAL); ALZHEIMER’S (1; JN131:1010); AMEBIASIS (2; FAY; PNC); AMENORRHEA (1; BGB; LIB); ANEMIA
(F; DAD); ANOREXIA (F; FAY); APPENDICITIS (1; FAY; PNC); APHTHA (1; KAL); ARRHYTHMIA (1; FNF);
ARTHROSIS (1; FAD; KAL; PHR; PH2); ASTHMA (1; PNC; FNF; WHO); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (3; AKT; APA;
BGB; BIS; FAD; FNF; KAL; PHR; PH2; SHT; WHO); ATHLETE’S FOOT (2; FNF; LIB; TGP); BACILLUS
(1; LAW; X10548758); BACTERIA (1; FNF; JFM; PH2); BITE (F; FAY; JFM); BOIL (1; DAA); BRONCHIECTASIS (1; KAL); BRONCHOSIS (2; FAD; FNF; PHR; PH2; WHO); BURN (2; KAL); CALLUS (F; JFM;
PH2); CANCER (2; AKT; FAD; FNF; PH2); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; AKT; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER
(1; FNF; JLH; X11341051; X11238818); CANCER, BREAST (1; BRU; JN131:989); CANCER, COLON (1;
AKT; FNF; JLH; X11238811); CANCER, ESOPHAGUS (1; JN131:1075); CANCER, GLAND (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (1; BO2); CANCER, LUNG (1; BRU; FNF; JLH; JN131:989); CANCER, PROSTATE (1;
X11102955); CANCER, SKIN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; AKT; X11238811); CANCER, UTERUS
(1; FNF; JLH); CANDIDA (2; CAN; FNF; KAL); CARBUNCLE (F; FAY); CARDIOPATHY (3; BGB; FAD;
FNF; SKY); CARIES (1; FNF; KAB); CATARRH (1; AKT; BGB); CELIAC (1; KAL); CHILDBIRTH (F; JFM;
KAB); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; APA); CHOLERA (1; PNC); CHRONIC FATIGUE (F; JFM); COCCIDIOSIS (1; KAL);
COLD (2; AKT; FAD; FNF; PHR; PNC); COLIC (1; WHO); COLOSIS (1; KAL; LAW); CONGESTION (1;
FAY); CONSTIPATION (F; JFM; PH2); CONVULSION (F; KAB; PHR); CORN (F; JLH; LIB; PHR); COUGH
(2; APA; FAD; PHR); CRAMP (F; PH2); CRYPTOCOCCUS (1; DAA); CYSTOSIS (F; JFM); CYTOMEGALOVIRUS
(1; KAL); DEAFNESS (F; LAW); DEBILITY (F; PH2); DEMENTIA (1; X11238823); DERMATOSIS (1; AKT;
DAA; DAD; KAL; PNC); DIABETES (1; MAM; PH2; PNC); DIARRHEA (1; AKT; PNC); DIPHTHERIA (F;
DAA; DAD); DROPSY (F; KAB); DYSENTERY (2; AKT; DAD; FAD; PNC); DYSMENORRHEA (F; PHR;
PH2); DYSPEPSIA (1; AKT; BIS; JFM; KAL; PNC; WHO); DYSPNEA (1; FAD; FAY); EARACHE (1;
FAD); EDEMA (1; FNF; JFM; PNC); ENTEROSIS (2; AKT; APA; FAD; PH2; WHO); EPIGASTROSIS (2;
WHO); EPILEPSY (F; AKT; FAY); ESCHERICHIA (1; LAW; WO2); FELON (F; JLH); FEVER (2; FAD; PHR;
PH2); FIBROID (F; DAD; JLH); FILARIA (1; KAL); FLU (1; AKT; APA; FNF; KAL; PNC); FUNGUS (1;
AKT; FNF; JFM); GANGRENE (F; KAP); GAS (1; DAD; JFM; PH2; WHO); GASTROENTEROSIS (2; BIS;
DAD; FAD); GASTROSIS (2; AKT; FAD; FAY; PH2; WHO); GIARDIA (1; KAL; X11101670); GOUT (F;
DEP; FAD; JFM); HEADACHE (F; JFM); HELICOBACTER (1; AKT; X11238826); HEMORRHOID (F; JFM);
HEPATOSIS (1; APA; FNF); HEPATOTOXICITY (ACETAMINOPHEN) (2; MAM); HERPES (1; KAL); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (2; AKT; FAD; FNF; PH2; SHT; WHO); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (3; AKT; APA; FNF; KAL; PH2;
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SHT); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (3; AKT; APA; KAL; SHT); HIV (1; FNF; KAL); HOOKWORM (1; AKT;
KAL; WHO); HYPERLIPIDEMIA (3; SHT; WHO); HYPERPERISTALSIS (2; WHO); HYPOGLYCEMIA (F; FAY);
HYPOTENSION (F; DAD); HYSTERIA (F; JFM); IMMUNODEPRESSION (2; FNF; PHR; SKY); IMPOTENCE (1;
AKT; X11238821); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (2; AKT; FNF; JFM; SHT); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF;
JFM); INSANITY (F; AKT); INSOMNIA (F; JFM); INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION (2; BGB; SHT; TGP); KERATOSIS
(1; KAL); LAMBLIASIS (1; KAL); LARYNGOSIS (1; KAL; KAP); LEAD POISONING (1; PNC); LEISHMANIASIS
(1; X11119248) LEPROSY (F; JFM); LEUKEMIA (F; JLH); LEUKODERMA (F; KAB); LUMBAGO (F; PH2);
LUPUS (F; KAL); LYMPHOMA (1; BO2; JLH); MALARIA (F; DAD; JFM); MANGE (F; JFM); MELANCHOLY
(F; JFM); MELANOMA (1; JN131:1027); MENINGOSIS (F; DAA); MENOPAUSE (F; JFM); MUCOSOSIS (1;
KAL); MYCOSIS (1; AKT; FNF; PNC); MYOFASCITIS (F; DAA); MYOSIS (F; PHR; PH2); NAUSEA (1;
WHO); NEPHROSIS (1; KAL); NEURALGIA (1; KAL; PHR); NEUROBLASTOMA (1; JN131:1027); NICOTINISM
(1; KAL); ODONTOSIS (F; KAB); OTOSIS (1; FAD; SKY); PAIN (1; FNF; JFM; PH2); PALPITATION (F;
JFM); PARADENTOSIS (1; KAL); PARALYSIS (F; KAB); PARASITE (1; AKT); PARATYPHOID (F; KAP); PARATYPHUS (F; LAW); PERIODONTOSIS (1; LAW); PERTUSSIS (2; DAD; FAD; FAY; PNC); PHARYNGOSIS (2; PHR);
PINWORM (1; AKT; FAY); PNEUMONIA (1; DAD; LAW); POLIOMYELITIS (1; LAW); POLYP (F; JLH);
PULMONOSIS (F; KAP); PULPOSIS (1; LAW); RAYNAUD’S (2; TGP); RESPIROSIS (1; AKT; BGB; LAW;
PH2; WHO); RHEUMATISM (1; FAD; LAW; PH2); RHINOSIS (2; BGB); RINGWORM (1; APA; DAA;
WHO); ROUNDWORM (1; KAL; WHO); SALMONELLA (1; WO2); SCABIES (1; DAA; JFM); SCIATICA (F;
PHR; PH2); SENILE DEMENTIA (1; LAW; X11238823); SEPSIS (1; LAW); SHIGELLA (1; LAW; WO2);
SINUSOSIS (1; FAY); SNAKEBITE (F; FAD; FAY); SORE (1; FAD; JFM); SORE THROAT (1; LAW); SPLENOSIS
(F; KAB); SPOROTRICHOSIS (1; KAL); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; LAW); STOMACHACHE (F; FAY); STOMATOSIS
(2; PHR); STREPTOCOCCUS (2; X9354029); STROKE (1; JN131:1010); SWELLING (F; AKT; FAD; FAY; JFM);
SYNCOPE (F; KAB); TAPEWORM (F; JFM); THIRST (F; KAB); THROMBOSIS (1; FAY); TONSILOSIS (1; LAW);
TRACHOMA (F; DAA); TRICHOMONAISIS (1; DAA); TRYPANOSOMIASIS (1; KAL); TUBERCULOSIS (1; APA;
JFM; KAL); TYPHOID (F; DAA); TYPHUS (1; DAD; KAL); TUMOR (1; FNF); ULCER (1; AKT;
X11238826); ULCUS CRURIS (2; KAL); UTI (1; WHO); VAGINOSIS (2; APA; DAA; KAL); VARICOSIS (F;
JFM); VIRUS (1; FNF; PH2); WART (F; PHR; PH2); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WEN (F; JLH); WHITLOW
(F; JLH); WORM (1; AKT; APA; JFM); WOUND (F; PHR); YEAST (2; APA; CAN; FNF; JAD; WO2).
GARLIC FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: GLUTATHIONE
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (-)-N-(1′-DEOXY-1′-D-FRUCTOPYRANOSYL)-S-ALLYL-L-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE; 2-
VINYL-4H-1,3-DITHIIN; ADENOSINE; AJOENE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALLYL-METHYL-TRISULFIDE; ALLYL-TRISULFIDE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CYCLOALLIIN; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL;
METHYL-ALLYL-TRISULFIDE; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIARRHYTHMIC: ADENOSINE; APIGENIN; FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIATHEROGENIC: RUTIN; S-ALLYL-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: ALLICIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTICARDIOSPASMIC: ALLITHIAMIN
• ANTICORONARY: LIGNIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; OLEANOLIC-ACID; RUTIN
• ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL: RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALLYL-MERCAPTAN; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
DIALLYL-PENTASULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; GLUTATHIONE; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; S-ALLYL-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE; S-ALLYL-L-CYSTEINE; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; TAURINE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTITACHYCARDIC: ADENOSINE
• ANTITHROMBIC: FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ARTERIODILATOR: ADENOSINE; FERULIC-ACID
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST: ALLICIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; TRANS-AJOENE
• CARDIOTONIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: AJOENE; ALLICIN; APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• DIURETIC: APIGENIN; ASPARAGINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRULLINE; KAEMPFEROL;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: 2-VINYL-4H-1,3-DITHIIN; ADENOSINE; AJOENE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEICACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; INULIN; LIGNIN;
METHYL-AJOENE; NICOTINIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; RUTIN; S-ALLYL-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE; S-ALLYL-L-CYSTEINE; S-METHYL-L-CYSTEINE-SULFOXIDE; TAURINE; TRIGONELLINE
• HYPOTENSIVE: ADENOSINE; ALLICIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; PROSTAGLANDIN-A-1; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; TYROSINASE
• SEDATIVE: ADENOSINE; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CITRAL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• VASODILATOR: ADENOSINE; APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; PROSTAGLANDIN-E-1; QUERCETIN
GARLIC FOR INFECTION:
• AMEBICIDE: ALLICIN; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE
• ANALGESIC: ADENOSINE; ALLITHIAMIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN;
SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANESTHETIC: LINALOOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: AJOENE; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALLISTATIN-I; ALLISTATIN-II; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRAL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TETRASULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE;
ENDOLYSIN; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LINALOOL; MURAMIDASE; MYRICETIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SALICYLIC-ACID;
SINAPIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; OLEANOLIC-ACID; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: AJOENE; ALLICIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-OBETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SALICYLIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTISEPTIC: 2-PROPENE-1-SULFINOTHIOCIC-ACIDS-2-PROPENYL-ESTER; ALLICIN; ALLIIN; CAFFEICACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRAL; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; DIALLYL-TETRASULFIDE; DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE;
GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PHLOROGLUCINOL; SALICYLICACID; TRIGONELLINE
• ANTIVIRAL: ALLICIN; ALLYL-ALCOHOL; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE;
DIALLYL-TRISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: AJOENE; ALLICIN; APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• FUNGICIDE: AJOENE; ALLICIN; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRAL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; ERUBOSIDE-B; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHLOROGLUCINOL; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID
• FUNGISTAT: P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALLICIN; ALLIIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; INULIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: AJOENE; ALLICIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL;
MYRICETIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER USES (GARLIC) — CULTIVATED FOR THE PUNGENT BULB, IT IS USED FRESH, DRIED, OR POWDERED
AS A SEASONING, RATHER THAN AS A VEGETABLE. IT IS BEST CRUSHED FINELY AND USED IN MODERATION.
ACCORDING TO RINZLER (1990), 1
/4 TSP GARLIC POWDER EQUALS TWO SMALL, FRESH GARLIC CLOVES. FRIED
IN TOO HOT FAT OR OIL, IT DEVELOPS AN ACRID FLAVOR. BULBS MAY BE BAKED, BOILED, BROILED, ROASTED,
OR SAUTÉED. ALLIOLI, AIOLI, BAGNA CAUDA, SKORDALIÁ, AND TARATOR ARE GARLIC SAUCES WIDELY USED IN
MEDITERRANEAN AND MIDDLE EASTERN COOKERY (FAC). FLEURS D’AIL IS A SAUCE MADE OF THE FLOWERS.
MILD YOUNG LEAVES ARE CONSIDERED A DELICACY IN THE ORIENT AND ARE USED IN SALADS, SOUPS, EGGDISHES, ETC. FLOWERING STALKS, SOMETIMES CALLED “GARLIC CHIVES,” ARE ALSO USED FOR FLAVORING AND
ARE OCCASIONALLY SOLD IN BUNCHES IN ORIENTAL STORES (FAC). THE SEEDS AND SPROUTED SEEDS ARE
ALSO EATEN (FAC). DEHYDRATED GARLIC IS A COMMON INGREDIENT OF HERBAL SALT SUBSTITUTES LIKE
VEGIT, SPIKE, AND MRS. DASH. GARLIC OIL IS OCCASIONALLY USED IN COOKING. BULBS YIELD 0.06–0.1%
EO, CONTAINING ALLYL PROPYL DISULFIDE, DIALLYL DISULFIDE, AND TWO OTHER SULFUR COMPOUNDS, ALLICIN
AND ALLISATIN (I AND II). ITALIANS FEED GARLIC TO THEIR PIGS IN LIEU OF ZINC BACITRACIN. THE ANTIBIOTIC
ACTIVITY OF THE GARLIC IS AS GOOD, HENCE IT STIMULATES GROWTH WITHOUT AFFECTING THE TASTE OF THE
PORK — MAYBE EVEN IMPROVING IT. GARLIC AND ITS ACTIVE PRINCIPLES, WHETHER NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC,
CONSTITUTE RELATIVELY SAFE PESTICIDES, SHOWN TO HELP CONTROL OR DESTROY APHIDS, CABBAGE-WHITE
BUTTERFLY CATERPILLARS, COLORADO BEETLE LARVAE, MOSQUITO LARVAE, PULSE BEETLES, ROOT KNOT NEMATODES, HORSEFLIES, ARMYWORMS, BACTERIA, TICKS, AND SEVERAL FUNGI. IT IS REPORTED THAT GARLIC EXTRACTS
CONTAIN A POWERFUL BACTERICIDE ALLYLTHIOSULFINIC ALLYL ESTER OR ALLICIN, FORMED BY THE INTERACTION
OF A GARLIC ENZYME ALLIINASE AND THE SUBSTRATE S ETHYL L-CYSTEINE SULFOXIDE. WHEN ENZYME OR
SUBSTRATE WAS INOCULATED INTO MICE WITH SARCOMA, ALL ANIMALS DIED WITHIN 16 DAYS; WHEN ENZYME
WAS ALLOWED TO REACT WITH SUBSTRATE, FOLLOWED BY ADMINISTRATION TO THE TUMOR-BEARING ANIMALS,
NO TUMOR GROWTH OCCURRED, AND THE ANIMALS REMAINED ALIVE DURING A 6 MONTH OBSERVATION PERIOD.
A NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENT KNOWN AS “GARLIC BALLS” CONTAINS ODORLESS GARLIC MIXED WITH GINSENG
AND HONEY. CAN BE GROWN IN INDOOR WINDOW SILL GARDENS (FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (GARLIC) — CLOVES ARE SEPARATED AND INDIVIDUAL CLOVES PLANTED ON RIDGES OR RAISED
BEDS TO PROVIDE DRAINAGE. CLOVES SHOULD BE PLANTED TO A DEPTH OF 2.5–5 CM, 10–15 CM APART, IN
ROWS 30–90 CM APART. PLANTINGS ARE MADE IN THE SPRING IN THE NORTH AND IN THE LATE FALL IN THE SOUTH,
BEING PLANTED AT A RATE OF 500–1100 KG CLOVES PER HECTARE. IRRIGATION IS VERY BENEFICIAL, ESPECIALLY
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SEASON, BUT SHOULD BE DISCONTINUED AS PLANTS APPROACH MATURITY. A GREEN
MANURE CROP OR OTHER ORGANIC MATTER PLUS SUPPLEMENT OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER (5–10–5) AT RATE OF
900–1359 KG/HA IS RECOMMENDED. A SURFACE DRESSING OF N AS BULBING BEGINS MAY BE HELPFUL. EXTRA
POTASH MAY BE NEEDED IN SOME AREAS. IN INDIA, GARLIC IS ROTATED WITH RAGI (ELEUSINE), CHILE (CAPSICUM), CORN (ZEA), POTATOES (SOLANUM), AND BEANS, PERHAPS HELPING CURB PEST AND DISEASE PROBLEMS.
GARLIC REQUIRES ABOUT 4 MONTHS (SOMETIMES TO 8 MONTHS) TO MATURE. IT IS USUALLY HARVESTED IN MAY
IN THE SOUTH AND JUNE OR JULY IN THE NORTH, AND IN TROPICAL AREAS DURING THE DRY SEASON. MATURITY
IS OFTEN INDICATED BY THE LEAVES BROWNING AND DRYING OUT. BULBS ARE CAREFULLY LIFTED, FREED FROM
SOIL, AND EITHER ALLOWED TO DRY IN THE FIELD FOR A FEW DAYS OR THOROUGHLY DRIED IN THE SUN ELSEWHERE.
WHEN DRY, THE BULBS ARE DELIVERED TO A COMMERCIAL PROCESSING PLANT, WHERE THEY ARE PACKAGED OR
GROUND INTO GARLIC POWDER OR CHIPS. GARLIC WILL KEEP 6–8 MONTHS AT 0.5ΟC WITH 70% RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
MOST COMMERCIALLY GROWN GARLIC YIELDS ABOUT 4.5 MT/HA. USUALLY, THE YIELD IS CA. 10 TIMES THE
BULBS PLANTED (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (GARLIC) — A GARLIC BULB (WHOLE) CAN CONTAIN UP TO 1.8% ALLIIN (FRESH WEIGHT; 4% DRY
WEIGHT) (BUT NO ALLICIN). ON CRUSHING, THAT SAME BULB CAN ATTAIN 0.37% ALLICIN (3700 PPM). ALLICIN
CAN BE AN OXIDIZING AGENT THAT NOT ONLY IMPEDES BACTERIAL GROWTH BUT MAY POSSIBLY DAMAGE THE
INTESTINAL LINING AND THE STOMACH. ENTERIC-COATED GARLIC PRODUCTS DESIGNED TO GENERATE ALLICIN IN THE
DELICATE INTESTINE MAY DAMAGE THE INTESTINAL TRACT. THE SYMPOSIUM (AMAGAZE ET AL., 2001) CONVINCED
ME THAT AGE MIGHT BE A RELATIVELY SAFER PRODUCT, BUT I AM NOT SO POSITIVE ABOUT THE RELATIVE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PROPORTIONALITY OF EFFICACY WITH SAFETY. ALLIIN IS ONE (85%) OF THREE S-ALKYLCYSTEINE SULFOXIDES ABLE
TO MAKE THIOSULFINATES, WITH 5% ISOALLIIN AND 10% METHIIN. REPORTING ON 22 STRAINS OF GARLIC, KOCH
AND LAWSON (1996) SHOW THAT THESE VARY ALMOST THREEFOLD FROM VARIETY TO VARIETY, FROM 3500–11,800
PPM, BUT ALLIIN ITSELF MAY VARY FIVEFOLD, FROM 3000–15,000 PPM. ALLIIN IS RARE OUTSIDE THE GENUS,
BUT ALLICIN HAS BEEN REPORTED FROM ROOTS OF MY GARLIC MUSTARD ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, 100 PPM IN FRESH
ROOTS, ALONG WITH SOME SULFORAPHANE AND AMAZONIAN ADENOCALYMNA ALLIACEUM, AT 1000 PPM, WHICH
IS ONE OF THE ADJUVANTS TO SOME AYAHUASCA FORMULAE (LAW).
LIST AND HOHAMMER (1969–1979) ADD SEVERAL ENZYMES (ALLIINASE, MYROSINASE, PEROXIDASE,
DESOXYRIBONUCLEASE, TYROSINASE), CHOLINE, IODINE, TRACES OF URANIUM, 20% INULIN-CONTAINING POLYOSES, SAPONIN, METHYL CYSTEINE, METHYL CYSTEINE SULFOXIDE, ETC. (HHB). THREE COMPOUNDS IN GARLIC
INHIBIT PLATELET AGGREGATION (1) DIALLYL TRISULFIDE, (2) 2-VINYL-4H-1,3-DITHIIN, AND (3) AJOENE. OTHER
COMPOUNDS IDENTIFIED WERE ALLICIN, ALLYL METHYL TRISULFIDE, DIALLYL DISULFIDE, DIALLYL TETRASULFIDE, AND
3-VINYL-4H-1,2-DITHIIN MG FE, 4 MG NA, 326 MG K, 920 MG BETA-CAROTENE EQUIVALENT, 0.11 MG
THIAMINE, 0.14 MG.
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN GARLIC. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
AJOENE — ANTIAGGREGANT 90–100 ΜM; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 55–150 ΜG/ML; ANTIHERPETIC;
ANTIHIV; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC 40 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE; ANTILYMPHOMIC; ANTIMALARIAL
50 MG/KG; ANTIMETASTATIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIMYCOTIC; ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC MIC = 55 ΜG/ML; ANTISTOMATITIC; ANTITHROMBIC; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR
(COLON); ANTIVIRAL; APOPTOTIC 40 ΜM; CANDIDICIDE MIC 70 ΜG/ML; CANDIDISTAT < 20 ΜG/ML; COX2-INHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC 2–50 ΜG/ML; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; CYTOSTATIC; FUNGICIDE IC100 = 100
ΜG/ML; FUNGISTAT < 20 ΜG/ML; GRAM(+)-ICIDE; GRAM(–)-ICIDE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC IC37–72 = 234
ΜG/ML, IC50 = 9 ΜM; LIPOLYTIC; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; NF-KB-INDUCER; NO-INHIBITOR IC50 =
2.5–5 ΜM; PROTISTICIDE; TINEACIDE; TRYPANOSOMICIDE.
ALLICIN — SEE ALSO ALLIUM CEPA.
ALLIIN — SEE ALSO ALLIUM CEPA.
ARGININE — ANTIDIABETIC?; ANTIENCEPHALOPATHIC; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIINFERTILITY 4 G/DAY; ANTIOXIDANT?; APHRODISIAC 3 G/DAY; DIURETIC; HYPOAMMONEMIC; PITUITARY-STIMULANT; SPERMIGENIC 4 G/DAY.
CYCLOALLIIN — ANTIAGGREGANT; FIBRINOLYTIC; LACHRIMATORY.
TRYPTOPHAN — ANALGESIC 750 MG/4 × DAY/ORL/MAN/; ANTIANXIETY 500–1000 MG/MEAL; ANTIDEMENTIC
3 G/DAY; ANTIDEPRESSANT 1–3 G/3 × DAY/ORL/MAN/; ANTIDYSKINETIC 2–8 G/ORL/WMN/DAY/; ANTIINSOMNIAC
1–3 G/DAY; ANTIMANIC 12 G/MAN/DAY/ORL; ANTIMENOPAUSAL 6 G/DAY; ANTIMIGRAINE 500 MG/MAN/4 ×
DAY; ANTIOXIDANT?; ANTIPARKINSONIAN 2 G 3 × DAY; ANTIPHENYLKETONURIC; ANTIPSYCHOTIC 12 G/MAN/
DAY; ANTIRHEUMATIC; CARCINOGENIC; ESSENTIAL; HYPOGLYCEMIC; HYPNOTIC; HYPOTENSIVE 3 G/DAY;
INSULINASE-INHIBITOR; INSULINOTONIC; MONOAMINE-PRECURSOR; PROLACTINOGENIC; SEDATIVE 3–10 G/MAN/
DAY; SEROTONINERGIC 6–12 G/DAY/ORL/MAN; TUMOR-PROMOTER; RDA = 300–1200 MG/DAY.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALPINIA GALANGA (L.) SW. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
GALANGAL, GREATER GALANGAL, LANGUAS, SIAMESE GINGER
SYNONYMS — LANGUAS GALANGA (L.) STUNTZ, MARANTA GALANGA L.
MEDICINAL USES (GREATER GALANGAL) — POPULAR FOLK REMEDY FOR CANCER, ESPECIALLY OF THE MOUTH
AND STOMACH. ROOTSTOCKS ARE CONSIDERED APHRODISIAC, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC,
AND TONIC. ITS EXPECTORANT ACTIVITY HAS BEEN COMPARED TO ANISE AND DILL, USEFUL IN PEDIATRIC RESPIRATORY
PROBLEMS. I WOULD NOT HESITATE TO MIX IT WITH THOSE FOR MY GRANDCHILDREN DURING FLU SEASON. I WOULD
HESITATE TO GIVE THEM A BRAND NEW SYNTHETIC. ROOTS, FLAYED ON ONE END UNTIL BRUSH-SHAPED, ARE DIPPED
IN VINEGAR AND RUBBED ON SPOTS CAUSED BY “PANU,” A COMMON SKIN DISEASE IN JAVA. AS A PASTE, WITH
A LITTLE GARLIC AND VINEGAR (RED WINE VINEGAR IS BETTER), IT IS A LAST RESORT DRASTIC REMEDY FOR HERPES.
RHIZOMES ARE ALSO RECOMMENDED FOR USE IN DYSPEPSIA, DIABETES, IMPOTENCE, NERVOUS DEBILITY, AND
FOOD POISONING. THEY ALSO HAVE DISINFECTANT PROPERTIES AND ARE USED AS A DEODORANT OF FOUL SMELLS
IN THE MOUTH AND OTHER PARTS OF THE BODY, AS WELL AS BEING USED AS A FRAGRANT ADJUNCT IN VARIOUS
PRESCRIPTIONS. AROMATIC PARTS, MADE INTO A PASTE, ARE APPLIED IN ACNE AND OTHER SKIN DISEASES. SEEDS
ARE ALTERATIVE, CALEFACIENT, STERNUTATORY, AND STOMACHIC AND ARE USEFUL IN DIARRHEA AND VOMITING AS
WELL AS FOR MEDICINAL USES SAME AS THE RHIZOME. IN SOME PARTS OF THE WORLD, ITS MAIN USE IS IN
CLEARING THE VOICE.
IN ONE CLINICAL TRIAL, 261 OSTEOARTHRITICS WITH MODERATE TO SEVERE PAIN IN THE KNEE WERE ENROLLED
IN A RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE-BLIND, PLACEBO-CONTROLLED, MULTICENTER, PARALLEL-GROUP, 6-WEEK STUDY. AFTER
WASHOUT, PATIENTS RECEIVED THE HERB EXTRACT OR PLACEBO TWICE DAILY, WITH ACETAMINOPHEN ALLOWED AS
RESCUE MEDICATION. AN EXTRACT OF GINGER AND GREATER GALANGAL SIGNIFICANTLY (BUT MODESTLY) REDUCED
SYMPTOMS OF OSTEOARTHRITIS. THERE WAS A GOOD SAFETY PROFILE, WITH MILD GI ADVERSE EVENTS REPORTED
IN THE HERBAL GROUP COMPARED TO CONTROLS (ALTMAN AND MARCUSSEN, 2001).
PLANTS CONTAIN AN EO THAT IS CARMINATIVE AND REDUCES SPASMS OF INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE TISSUE,
DIMINISHING EXCESSIVE PERISTALSIS IN THE INTESTINES (WO2). AL-YAHYA ET AL. (1990) REPORTED ANTISECRETORY, ANTIULCER, AND CYTOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITIES OF ETHANOLIC RHIZOME EXTRACTS AT 500 MG/KG IN RATS
(PM58:124). 1’-ACETOXYCHAVICOL-ACETATE AND 1’-ACETOXYEUGENOL-ACETATE ARE REPORTEDLY POWERFUL
ANTIULCER AGENTS (WO2).
RHIZOME EO INHIBITED MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS AT 25 MG/ML. IT WAS MORE POTENT AGAINST
GRAM(–) BACTERIA (AT 0.4–0.6 MG/ML). LD50 OF THE OIL IN GUINEA PIGS WAS 0.68 ML/KG (MODE OF
ADMINISTRATION NOT STATED) (MPI). STEAM VOLATILE PORTION OF THE RHIZOME EXTRACTS STIMULATED THE
BRONCHIAL GLANDS; THE NONVOLATILE PORTION ACTED REFLEXLY THROUGH THE GASTRIC MUCOSA (MPI). AND AS
ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF SYNERGY, (E)-8 BETA,17-EPOXYLABD-12-ENE-15,16-DIAL SYNERGISTICALLY ENHANCED
THE ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF QUERCETIN AND CHALCONE AGAINST CANDIDA ALBICANS. THE ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MAY BE DUE TO CHANGES OF MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY ARISING FROM MEMBRANE LIPID ALTERATION
(X8792660).
IN A STUDY OF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN
STUDIES ON GREATER GALANGA, SHOWING THAT THE ETHANOLIC EXTRACT (AT 125 MG/KG SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED
EFFECTS OF INDUCED MICRONUCLEATED POLYCHROMATIC ERYTHROCYTES WITHOUT MODIFYING CYTOTOXICITY.
LOOKING AT POTENTIAL TOXICITY, QURESHI ET AL. (1992) FOUND NO SPERMATOTOXIC ACTIVITY AT ACUTE
DOSES OF 0.5, 1, AND 3 G/KG ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS OR CHRONIC DOSAGES OF 100 MG/KG. THEY NOTED WEIGHT
GAIN IN SEX ORGANS AND INCREASED SPERM MOTILITY AND SPERM COUNTS. THE ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF THE
RHIZOME LOWERED TEMPERATURE IN MICE AND POTENTIATED AMPHETAMINE TOXICITY (MPI).
INDICATIONS (GREATER GALANGAL) — BACTERIA (1; FNF; HHB; MPI); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF; HHB);
CANCER (1; X3575509); CANDIDA (1; FNF; X8792660); CATARRH (F; HHB; MPI); CHILDBIRTH (F; DAA);
COLD (1; FNF); COLIC (F; DAA; WO2); COUGH (F; WO2); CRAMP (1; FNF; WO2); DIABETES (F; HHB);
DIARRHEA (1; DAA; FNF); DYSPNEA (F; HHB); EARACHE (F; DAA); ENTEROSIS (F; WO2); FEVER (1;
MPI); FUNGUS (1; FNF; X8792660); GASTROSIS (F; WO2); INFECTION (1; FNF; HHB); INFLAMMATION
(1; FNF); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; X8792660); NAUSEA (F; DAA); PAIN (1; FNF; JPP42:877); PROTOZOA
(1; HHB); PULMONOSIS (F; HHB); RHEUMATISM (1; FNF; HHB); TUBERCULOSIS (1; MPI; WO2); ULCER
(1; FNF; WO2; X1017082); WATER RETENTION (1; WO2); YEAST (1; X8792660).
GREATER GALANGAL FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; EUGENOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL;
GALANGIN; KAEMPFERIDE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; GALANGIN;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHAVICOL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN
GREATER GALANGAL FOR ULCER:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; EUGENOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL;
GALANGIN; KAEMPFERIDE
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIULCER: 1′-ACETOXY-EUGENOL-ACETATE; 1′-ACETOXYCHAVICOL-ACETATE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETABISABOLENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE; EUGENOL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; GALANGIN;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHAVICOL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN
• VULNERARY: TERPINEN-4-OL
OTHER USES (GREATER GALANGAL) — KNOWN IN CULTIVATION FOR AT LEAST 14 CENTURIES, IT IS GROWN
FOR THE AROMATIC ROOTSTOCK USED IN LIQUEURS, CURRIES, MEDICINE, AND AS A FLAVORING FOR FOODS. IN
KERALA, RHIZOMES ARE USED TO FLAVOR FISH AND IN PICKLING. USED TO FLAVOR BEAN CURD AND CURRIES
IN JAVA, SAUCES IN MALAYA. ALSO USED AS A FLAVORING IN FISH DISHES, MEAT, SOUPS, AND IN MASAMAN
AND OTHER CURRIES (FAC). SLICES OF YOUNG RHIZOME ARE ADDED AS SIDE DISHES OR SPICES TO RICE
DISHES, OR EATEN RAW OR STEAMED. UNDERDEVELOPED LATERAL SHOOTS ARE EATEN, BUT ONLY WHEN
COOKED, AS THEY ARE VERY HOT BEFORE PREPARATION. RHIZOME IS TOO HOT TO BE EATEN RAW. RHIZOME
DYES WOOL YELLOW. FLOWER BUDS AND FLOWERS MAY BE PICKLED, EATEN RAW, STEAMED, USED IN SOUPS
AND SALADS, OR MIXED WITH CHILI PASTE (FAC). THE RED FRUITS ARE EDIBLE (FAC). THE EO IS USED
TO FLAVOR LIQUEURS SUCH AS CHARTREUSE, ANGOSTURA AND OTHER BITTERS, AND SOFT DRINKS (FAC). THE
EO IS SOMETIME USED IN PERFUMERY. THE SAME EO IS SAID TO BE GOOD AT KNOCKING DOWN HOUSE
FLIES. FURTHERING THE OLD ADAGE THAT SPICES WERE CLASSICALLY USED AS BOTH ANTIOXIDANTS AND
ANTISEPTICS IS SOUND EVIDENCE THAT GALANGAL EXTRACT MAY INHIBIT LIPID OXIDATION AND INCREASE
MICROBIAL STABILITY OF MINCED MEAT (X10716573).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (GREATER GALANGAL) — PLANTS ARE MAINLY CULTIVATED BY RHIZOME DIVISIONS OR RHIZOME
CUTTINGS. THESE ARE PLANTED IN RICH, WELL-CULTIVATED SOIL IN PARTIAL SHADE, OFTEN AT DISTANCES OF 0.5–1
M SQUARE. AS OCHSE (1980) PUTS IT PICTURESQUELY, THE PLANT IS THANKFUL OF WELL-TILLED FERTILE HABITAT,
WHICH SHOULD BE HUMID BUT NOT SWAMPY. ONCE PLANTED, THE ROOTS ARE EARTHED UP. RELATIVELY HIGH
MOISTURE IN SOIL IS NECESSARY FOR SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION. RHIZOMES ARE COLLECTED IN LATE SUMMER OR
EARLY AUTUMN (WO2). EARLIEST HARVEST COULD BE AT 2.5–3 MONTHS, BUT THERE IS MORE TO BE HAD LATER.
DON’T WAIT TOO LONG. BOWN (2001) SAYS FOUR- TO SIX-YEAR-OLD RHIZOMES ARE HARVESTED AT THE END OF
THE GROWING SEASON. THE RHIZOMES GET FIBROUS WHEN ALLOWED TO GROW TOO LONG. BOWN (2001) NOTES
THAT SPIDER MITES CAN BE A PROBLEM UNDER GLASS.
CHEMISTRY (GREATER GALANGAL) — STEAM DISTILLATION OF FRESH RHIZOMES YIELDS CA. 0.04% OF A SPICY
EO, WITH CA. 48% METHYL CINNAMATE, 20–30% CINEOLE, AND SOME CAMPHOR AND PINENE. OUR STAR FOR
MYRCENE IS GREATER GALANGAL; ITS RHIZOMES CAN ATTAIN 4.5% (ZMB) OF THE ANESTHETIC MYRCENE, HIGHER
THAN ANY SPICE IN MY DATABASE. LEAVES OF THE BAYRUM TREE AND/OR ALLSPICE (UP TO 2.4% ON A CALCULATED
DRY WEIGHT BASIS), NUTMEG (0.59), ROSEMARY (0.56), EUCALYPTUS (TO 0.5), CARDAMOM (0.3), FENNEL
(0.3) CORNMINT (0.25), WILD BERGAMOT (0.19), PARSLEY SEED (0.17), CARAWAY SEED (0.16), SPEARMINT
(0.14), TARRAGON (0.1), DILL SEED (0.09), AND MOUNTAIN DITTANY (0.07% ON A DRY WEIGHT BASIS). HERE
ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN GREATER GALANGAL. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
1’-ACETOXYEUGENOL–ACETATE — ANTISARCOMA; ANTITUMOR; ANTIULCER.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BETA–BISABOLENE — ABORTIFACIENT; ANTIRHINOVIRAL IC50 = 1,800?; ANTIULCER IC57 = 100 MG/KG;
ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 1,800?; STOMACHIC.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
GALANGIN — ANTIAFLATOXIC IC50 = 1.19 ΜM, IC50 = 0.32 PPM; ANTICANCER; ANTIGENOTOXIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 5.5 ΜM; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPEROXIDANT IC50 = 39 ΜM; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTIVIRAL; AROMATASE-INHIBITOR IC20 = 1 ΜM/L; COPPER-CHELATOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR
IC50 = 5.5 ΜM; COX-2-INHIBITOR; HEPATOPROTECTIVE IC50 = 1.19 ΜM, IC50 = 0.32 PPM; INOTROPIC;
MUTAGENIC; NO-INHIBITOR; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 4 ΜM; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR.
MYRCENE — ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC 10–20 MG/KG IPR MUS, 20–40 MG/KG SCU MUS; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISPASMODIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT.
ALPINIA OFFICINARUM HANCE (ZINGIBERACEAE)
CHINESE GINGER, LESSER GALANGAL
SYNONYM — LANGUAS OFFICINARUM (HANCE) FARW.
MEDICINAL USES (LESSER GALANGAL) — IT IS A FAVORITE SPICE AND MEDICINE IN ESTONIA AND LITHUANIA
(GMH). A SALVE, PREPARED FROM THE ROOT, IS SAID TO BE A FOLK REMEDY FOR CANCER IN LOUISIANA AND
OKLAHOMA. PRESCRIBED FOR GASTRALGIA AND CHRONIC ENTERITIS. RHIZOMES ARE CONSIDERED APHRODISIAC,
AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC, BEING ESPECIALLY USEFUL IN DYSPEPSIA, AND IN
PREVENTING FERMENTATION AND FLATULENCE. IN INDIA, IT IS CONSIDERED A NERVINE TONIC AND AN APHRODISIAC.
REPORTEDLY, IT CLEARS HALITOSIS WHEN CHEWED, AND SORE THROAT WHEN SWALLOWED. ACCORDING TO INDIA
FOLKLORE, IF GIVEN TO CHILDREN, THEY LEARN TO TALK EARLIER. POWDERED WITH OIL OR WATER, IT IS SAID TO
REMOVE FRECKLES. SUPPOSEDLY REDUCES THE URINE FLOW IN DIABETICS (DEP). POWDER IS USED AS A SNUFF,
ESPECIALLY FOR CATARRH (GMH), AND SOMETIMES USED AS MEDICINE FOR CATTLE.
DEMONSTRATING SYNERGIES BETWEEN NATURAL COMPOUNDS AND ANTIBIOTICS, LIU ET AL. (2001) WERE
ABLE TO REVERSE VANCOMYCIN RESISTANCE IN ENTEROCOCCI WITH CERTAIN FLAVONOIDS, INCLUDING GALANGIN.
COMBINING GALANGIN OR 3,7-DIHYDROXYFLAVONE WITH VANCOMYCIN SENSITIZES RESISTANT STRAINS OF ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS AND ENTEROCOCCUS FAECIUM. MICS OF VANCOMYCIN AGAINST 67% OF RESISTANT CLINICAL
ISOLATES AND A TYPE STRAIN OF ENTEROCOCCI WERE LOWERED FROM >250 ΜG/ML TO <4 ΜG/ML WITH GALANGIN
(12.5 ΜG/ML) OR WITH 3,7-DIHYDROXYFLAVONE (6.25 ΜG/ML) (LIU ET AL., 2001).
THOUGH WORKING WITH AN UNRELATED SPECIES, KUBO ET AL. (2001) REPORTED TYROSINASE-INHIBITORY
ACTIVITY IN THREE GALANGAL FLAVONOLS, GALANGIN, KAEMPFEROL, AND QUERCETIN (ALSO COX-INHIBITORS).
THE ACTIVITY STEMMED FROM THEIR ABILITY TO CHELATE COPPER IN THE ENZYME. THE CORRESPONDING
FLAVONES, CHRYSIN, APIGENIN, AND LUTEOLIN, DID NOT CHELATE COPPER IN THE ENZYME. GALANGIN INHIBITS
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MONOPHENOLASE ACTIVITY AND ALL THREE INHIBIT DIPHENOLASE (X10976523). THE COX-2-INHIBITORS
IN THIS ZINGIBERACEOUS PLANT, LIKE THOSE IN GINGER AND TURMERIC, MIGHT RENDER IT A USEFUL FOOD
PHARMACEUTICAL FOR ALLEVIATING, DECELERATING, OR PREVENTING ALZHEIMER’S, ARTHRITIS, AND COLON CANCER. GALANGIN, WITH ANTIOXIDANT AND RADICAL SCAVENGING ACTIVITIES CAN MODULATE ENZYME ACTIVITIES
AND SUPPRESS THE GENOTOXICITY OF CHEMICALS. GALANGIN MAY BE A PROMISING CANCER CHEMOPREVENTIVE
(KAJIYA, 2001).
INDICATIONS (LESSER GALANGAL) — ADENOSIS (F; HHB; MAD); AGUE (F; DAA); ALLERGY (1; FNF);
ALZHEIMER’S (F; MAD); ANEMIA (F; MAD); ANOREXIA (2; DAA; KOM; MAD; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1;
COX; FNF); BACTERIA (1; BOW; FNF); BRONCHOSIS (2; FNF; PHR; PH2); CANCER (1; FNF; JLH;
X11344041); CANCER, BLADDER (F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; COX; FNF); CANCER, PENIS (F; JLH); CANCER,
SKIN (F; BOW); CATARRH (F; GMH); CHOLECYSTOSIS (2; MAD; PHR; PH2); CHOLERA (F; DAA); COLD
(2; FNF; PHR; PH2); CRAMP (1; FNF); DERMATOSIS (F; BOW); DIARRHEA (F; DAA; MAD); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAA; HHB; MAD); DYSPEPSIA (2; DAA; FNF; GMH; KOM; PH2); ENTEROSIS (F; DAA;
PH2; PHR); EPIGASTROSIS (F; BOW); FEVER (2; DAA; GMH; PHR; PH2); FLU (1; FNF); FRECKLE (F;
DEP); FUNGUS (1; BOW; FNF; X1025003); GAS (F; MAD); GASTROSIS (F; GMH); GINGIVOSIS (F; BOW);
HALITOSIS (F; DEP); HEPATOSIS (2; DAA; FNF; PHR; PH2); HYPOCHONDRIA (F; DAA); INFECTION (1;
FNF; PH2; X1025003); INFLAMMATION (2; FNF; PHR); MALARIA (F; EFS); PAIN (1; FNF; PH2);
PHARYNGOSIS (2; PHR; PH2); POLYURIA (F; DEP); PULMONOSIS (F; MAD); RHEUMATISM (F; BOW; MAD);
ROEMHELD SYNDROME (F; PH2); SEASICKNESS (F; DAA; GMH; MAD); SORE THROAT (F; DEP); STOMACHACHE (F; DAA; MAD; PH2); STOMATOSIS (2; FNF; PHR; PH2); STONE (F; MAD); SWELLING (F;
HHB); SYNCOPE (F; DAA; HHB); TOOTHACHE (F; DAA); VERTIGO (F; HHB); VOMITING (F; GMH).
LESSER GALANGAL FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GALANGIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BETA-PINENE; EUGENOL; GALANGIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFERIDE;
KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKEMIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: EUGENOL; GALANGIN; KAEMPFERIDE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: GALANGIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: EUGENOL; PHENYL-ALKYL-KETONES
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE
• CYTOTOXIC: EUGENOL; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: EUGENOL; ISORHAMNETIN; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE; QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
LESSER GALANGAL FOR COLDS:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE; EUGENOL; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE;
LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIFLU: LIMONENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BETA-PINENE; EUGENOL; GALANGIN; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFERIDE;
KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; ISORHAMNETIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
OTHER USES (LESSER GALANGAL) — CULTIVATED PRIMARILY AS A SPICE, USED FOR OVER 1000 YEARS IN
EUROPE, PROBABLY INTRODUCED BY ARABIAN OR GREEK PHYSICIANS. ARABS FEED IT TO THEIR HORSES TO MAKE
THEM FIERY (GMH). THE REDDISH-BROWN AROMATIC AND PUNGENT RHIZOMES TASTE SOMEWHERE BETWEEN
PEPPER AND GINGER. THEY HAVE BEEN USED TO FLAVOR VINEGAR AND THE LIQUEUR CALLED “NASTOIKA.”
RHIZOMES ARE USED AS A TEA OR WITH TEA BY THE TARTARS (DEP). IT IS ALSO USED IN MAKING CURRIES.
REDDISH BROWN POWDER USED AS A SNUFF. LEAVES ARE ALSO EDIBLE (FAC). IN INDIA, THE OIL IS FAVORED
IN PERFUMES. GUENTHER’S ESSENTIAL OILS SAYS IT IMPARTS A “WARM, UNIQUE, AND SOMEWHAT SPICY NOTE.”
ALCOHOL “FREELY EXTRACTS ALL THE PROPERTIES” (GEO).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (LESSER GALANGAL) — SOMETIMES PROPAGATED FROM SEED, BUT USUALLY GROWN BY DIVISIONS
OF THE RHIZOME. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS RICH, WELL-DRAINED SOILS IN PARTIAL SHADE WITH HIGH HUMIDITY.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FOUR- TO SIX-YEAR-OLD RHIZOMES ARE HARVESTED AT THE END OF THE GROWING SEASON. THE RHIZOMES GET
FIBROUS WHEN ALLOWED TO GROW TOO LONG. RHIZOMES CAN BE USED FRESH OR DRIED. BOWN (2001) NOTES
THAT SPIDER MITES CAN BE A PROBLEM UNDER GLASS.
CHEMISTRY (LESSER GALANGAL) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN LESSER
GALANGAL. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
GALANGIN — SEE ALSO ALPINIA GALANGA.
KAEMPFEROL — ANTIAFLATOXIC IC50 = 8.73 ΜM, IC50 = 3.28 PPM; ANTIAGGREGANT 30 ΜM; ANTIALLERGIC;
ANTIBACTERIAL 20 ΜG/ML; ANTICANCER; ANTIFERTILITY 250 MG/KG DAY/60 DAYS/ORL RAT; ANTIGINGIVITIC 20
ΜG/ML; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIIMPLANTATION; ANTIINFLAMMATORY 20 MG/KG, 200 MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTILEUKEMIC IC50 = 3.1 ΜG/ML; ANTILYMPHOCYTIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC ID50 = 10–40 NM; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 =
40 ΜM; 3
/4 QUERCETIN; ANTIPERIODONTIC 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIPLAQUE 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIRADICULAR (7 × QUERCETIN);
ANTISEPTIC 20 ΜG/ML; ANTISEROTONIN 200 MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; ANTITUMOR; ANTIULCER 50–200 MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTIVIRAL; APOPTOTIC 60 ΜM; AROMATASE-INHIBITOR IC12 = 1
ΜM/L; 11B-HSD-INHIBITOR; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CARCINOGENIC; CHOLERETIC; COPPERCHELATOR; COX-2-INHIBITOR; DIAPHORETIC?; DIURETIC; ESTROGENIC EC50 = 0.1–25 ΜM/L, EC50 = 0.56
ΜM; HEPATOPROTECTIVE IC50 = 5.46 ΜM, IC50 = 1.30 PPM; HIV-RT-INHIBITOR IC50 = 50–150 ΜG/
ML; HYPOTENSIVE; INOTROPIC; IODOTHYRONINE-DEIODINASE-INHIBITOR; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC50 (ΜM) = 20; MAOI; MUTAGENIC; NATRIURETIC; NEUROPROTECTIVE; PROTISTICIDE;
QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 3 ΜM; TERATOLOGIC; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC50 = 8.1 ΜG/ML; TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR; UTEROTROPIC EC50 = 0.1–25 ΜM/L;
VASODILATOR.
QUERCETIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ALLELOCHEMIC IC82 = 1 MM; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC;
ANTIAFLATOXIC IC50 = 25 ΜM, IC50 = 7.5 PPM; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 55 ΜM, 30 ΜM; ANTIALLERGIC
IC50 = 14 ΜM; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIASTHMATIC IC50 = 14 ΜM; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTICANCER; ANTICAPILLARY FRAGILITY; ANTICARCINOMIC (BREAST) IC50 = 1.5 ΜM; ANTICARIOGENIC ID50
= 120 ΜG/ML; ANTICATARACT; ANTICROHN’S 400 MG/MAN/3×/DAY; ANTICOLITIC 400 MG/MAN/3×/DAY;
ANTIDERMATITIC; ANTIDIABETIC; ANTIENCEPHALITIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC; ANTIELASTASE IC50 = 0.8 ΜG/ML;
ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIFEEDANT (IC52 = <1000 PPM DIET); ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC; ANTIFLU; ANTIGASTRIC;
ANTIGONADOTROPIC; ANTIGTF ID50 = 120 ΜG/ML; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC IC50
= <10 ΜM; ANTIHIV; ANTIHYDROPHOBIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY (20 MG/KG) 150 MG/KG; ANTILEUKEMIC
IC50 = >10 ΜG/ML, 5.5–60 ΜM, IC50 = 10 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENIC; ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT IC67 = 50;
ANTIMALARIAL IC50 = 1–6.4 ΜG/ML; ANTIMELANOMIC; ANTIMETASTATIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC ID50 = 2–5 NM;
ANTIMYOCARDITIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC96 = 300 PPM, 4.7 × VIT. E; ANTIPERIODONTAL;
ANTIPERMEABILITY; ANTIPEROXIDANT; ANTIPANCREATOTIC; ANTIPHARYNGITIC; ANTIPLAQUE; ANTIPMS 500 MG/
2×/DAY/WMN; ANTIPODRIAC; ANTIPOLIO; ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTIPROSTANOID; ANTIPROSTATIC; ANTIPSORIAC;
ANTIRADICULAR IC50 = 4.6 ΜM; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC ID50 = 120 ΜG/ML; ANTITHIAMIN;
ANTITHROMBIC; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (BLADDER); ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTITUMOR
(LUNG); ANTITUMOR (OVARY); ANTITUMOR (SKIN) 20 ΜM; ANTIULCER; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 10 ΜM; APOPTOTIC
20–60 ΜM; ATPASE-INHIBITOR; BACTERISTAT 10 MG/ML; 11B-HSD-INHIBITOR; BRADYCARDIAC; CALMODULIN-ANTAGONIST; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CANDIDICIDE; CARCINOGENIC 40,000 PPM (DIET)
MUS; CATABOLIC; COMT-INHIBITOR; COPPER-CHELATOR; COX-2-INHIBITOR <40 ΜM; CYCLO-OXYGENASEINHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC ED50 = 70 ΜG/ML, IC82 = 100 ΜG/ML; DEIODINASE-INHIBITOR; DIAPHORETIC?;
DIFFERENTIATOR 5.5 ΜM; ESTROGENIC (10% GENISTEIN); FUNGICIDE; HEMOSTAT; HEPATOMAGENIC 5000 PPM
(DIET) RAT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HIV-RT-INHIBITOR IC50 = <1 ΜG/ML; HYPOGLYCEMIC 100 MG/KG ORL RATS;
HYPOTENSIVE; INOTROPIC; INSULINOGENIC; JUVABIONAL; LARVISTAT (8,000 PPM DIET); LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC11 = 1.25 MM, IC50 = 0.1–5 ΜM; MAOI-INHIBITOR; MAST-CELL-STABILIZER; METALLOPROTEINASEINHIBITOR IC50 = >42 ΜM; MMP-9-INHIBITOR 20 ΜM; MUTAGENIC; NADH-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR; NEP-
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INHIBITOR IC50 = >42 ΜM; NEUROPROTECTIVE 5–25 ΜM; NO-INHIBITOR 5–50 ΜM; ODC-INHIBITOR <10
ΜM; P450-INDUCER 5 ΜM; P450-INHIBITOR 50–100 ΜM; PHOSPHOLIPASE-INHIBITOR; PROTEIN-KINASE-CINHIBITOR; PTK-INHIBITOR 0.4–24 ΜM; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 6 ΜM, 13 ΜM; TERATOLOGIC; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR IC50 = 42 ΜM, IC50 = 12.8 ΜG/ML; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC50 = 23–40
ΜM, IC50 = 1–6.9 ΜG/ML; TUMORIGENIC (0.1% DIET ORL RAT/YR); TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR; TYROSINE-KINASEINHIBITOR; VASODILATOR; ANTINITROSAMINIC; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = >0.4 ΜG/ML; LD50 =
160 (ORL MUS) (MAY HAVE BEEN CONTAMINATED WITH PODOPHYLLIN); LD50 = >2000 ORL RAT PAM.
AMOMUM AROMATICUM ROXB. AND AMOMUM
SUBULATUM ROXB. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
BENGAL CARDAMOM, BLACK CARDAMOM, BROWN CARDAMOM, GREATER CARDAMOM,
INDIAN CARDAMOM, JALPAIGURI CARDAMOM, NEPALESE CARDAMOM
HOPELESSLY (TAXONOMICALLY) INEXTRICABLE CARDAMOM SPECIES, WHICH WE WILL CALL NEPALESE CARDAMOM.
MEDICINAL USES (NEPALESE CARDAMOM) — THE WEALTH OF INDIA SAYS THAT THE SEEDS ARE USED FOR
SPICE AND MEDICINE, MUCH AS THOSE OF A. SUBULATUM. INDEED, THEY ARE SO ALIKE THAT HAGER’S HANDBOOK
(1972) TREATS THEM UNDER THE SAME ENTRY. I’M INCLINED TO DO THE SAME THING HERE IN THIS SPICE BOOK,
KNOWING HOW DIFFICULT MEMBERS OF THE GINGER FAMILY ARE TO SEPARATE TAXONOMICALLY. AYURVEDICS USE
THE PUNGENT SEEDS FOR ABDOMINAL PAINS, BILIOUSNESS, ENLARGED SPLEEN, INDIGESTION, ITCH, AND OTHER
AILMENTS OF THE HEAD, MOUTH, AND RECTUM (KAB). THE HERBAL PDR NOTES THAT TCM USES THE SPECIES
FOR DIARRHEA, DIGESTIVE UPSETS, MALARIA, AND VOMITING. THE SEEDS ARE CREDITED AS BEING ALEXETERIC,
ASTRINGENT, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC, HAVING BEEN PRESCRIBED FOR ABDOMINAL DISEASES, BILIOUSNESS,
DYSPEPSIA, RECTAL DISEASES, AND VOMITING. IN LARGE DOSES (30 GRAINS), THE SEEDS ARE TAKEN WITH QUININE
FOR NEURALGIA. THE SEED DECOCTION IS GARGLED FOR GUM AND TOOTH PROBLEMS. THE SEEDS, WITH THOSE OF
MELON, ARE USED AS DIURETICS IN KIDNEY STONES (WOI). SEEDS PROMOTE ELIMINATION OF BILE, HENCE
USEFUL IN LIVER PROBLEMS. SEEDS ALSO USED IN GONORRHEA (WOI). UNANI REGARD THE SEEDS AS ASTRINGENT,
CARDIOTONIC, HEPATOTONIC, HYPNOTIC, OREXIGENIC AND STOMACHIC (KAB). THE HUSK OF THE FRUIT (PERICARP)
IS USED FOR HEADACHE AND “HEALS STOMATITIS” (WOI). WHILE I’D BE RELUCTANT MYSELF, INDIANS APPLY
THE AROMATIC OIL FROM THE SEEDS TO THEIR EYES TO SOOTHE INFLAMMATION.
JAFRI ET AL. (2001) VALIDATED THE USE OF LARGE CARDAMOM (FRUIT OF A. SUBULATUM), COMMONLY KNOWN
AS “HEEL KALAN” OR “BARI ILAICHI,” IN THE UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE IN GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS. A
CRUDE METHANOLIC EXTRACT AND ITS DIFFERENT FRACTIONS, VIZ. EO, PETROLEUM ETHER (60 TO 80°), ETHYL
ACETATE, AND METHANOLIC FRACTIONS, WERE STUDIED IN RATS FOR THEIR ABILITY TO INHIBIT THE GASTRIC LESIONS
INDUCED BY ASPIRIN, ETHANOL, AND PYLORUS LIGATURE. IN ADDITION, THEIR EFFECTS ON WALL MUCUS, OUTPUT
OF GASTRIC ACID, AND PEPSIN CONCENTRATION WERE RECORDED. THE EXTRACT AND ITS FRACTIONS OF A. SUBULATUM, INHIBITED GASTRIC LESIONS INDUCED BY ETHANOL SIGNIFICANTLY, BUT NOT THOSE INDUCED BY PYLORUS
LIGATION AND ASPIRIN. HOWEVER, ETHYL ACETATE FRACTION INCREASED THE WALL MUCUS IN PYLORUS LIGATED
RATS. THE RESULTS SUGGEST A DIRECT PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF ETHYL ACETATE FRACTION ON GASTRIC MUCOSAL BARRIER.
THE OBSERVATION OF DECREASE IN GASTRIC MOTILITY BY EO AND PETROLEUM ETHER FRACTIONS SUGGESTS THE
GASTROPROTECTIVE ACTION OF THE TEST DRUG (X11297839). AND THERE ARE FOUR ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS
REPORTED FROM THE FRUITS, TWO MORE POTENT THAN TOCOPHEROL, TWO COMPARABLE, ALL WITH STRONG RADICAL
SCAVENGING ACTIVITIES (X11508709).
INDICATIONS (NEPALESE CARDAMOM) — ALZHEIMER’S (1; FNF); ANOREXIA (F; HH2); BACTERIA (1;
FNF); BILIOUSNESS (F; WOI); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF); CATARRH (1; FNF); CHILL (F; HH2); CHOLERA (F;
KAB); COLD (F; HH2); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; WOI); CRAMP (1; FNF); DIARRHEA (F; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (F;
PH2; WOI); ENTEROSIS (F; WOI); FATIGUE (1; FNF); FEVER (F; PH2); GASTROSIS (F; KAB); GINGIVOSIS
(F; WOI); GONORRHEA (F; KAB); GRAVEL (F; WOI); HEADACHE (F; WOI); HEPATOSIS (F; WOI); IMPOTENCE
(F; KAB); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); MALARIA (F; PH2); NEPHROSIS (F; WOI);
NEURALGIA (F; KAB; WOI); ODONTOSIS (F; WOI); PAIN (1; FNF; WOI); PROCTOSIS (F; WOI); SNAKEBITE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(F; HH2); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; FNF); STING (F; HH2); STOMATOSIS (F; WOI); TRICHOMONAS (1; FNF);
ULCER (1; FNF); VD (F; WOI); VOMITING (F; PH2).
OTHER USES (NEPALESE CARDAMOM) — SEEDS WIDELY USED AS A SPICE. A. AROMATICUM IS PROBABLY
NOT AS POPULAR IN INDIA AS THE LARGE CARDAMOM, A. SUBULATUM. BOTH ARE APPARENTLY USED INTERCHANGEABLY AS SPICE AND AS INGREDIENTS IN MASTICATORIES AND SNUFFS. IN SOUTH INDIA, IT IS A MAJOR CONSTITUENT
IN “AGARBATTIES.” IT IS AN IMPORTANT CONSTITUENT IN AFGHAN “CHAR MARSALA,” A CULINARY SPICE MIX.
WHOLE FRUITS MAY BE GROUND AND POWDERED INTO RICE PILAFS (FAC). THE PUNGENTLY AROMATIC SEEDS
ARE OFTEN SUBSTITUTED FOR TRUE CARDAMOM, THE HUSKS OFTEN POWDERED AND ADDED TO CATTLE FEED (WOI).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (NEPALESE CARDAMOM) — PLANTS ARE PROBABLY CULTIVATED LIKE OTHER GINGER RELATIVES,
BY RHIZOME DIVISIONS OR RHIZOME CUTTINGS, AS NEW GROWTH RESUMES. THESE ARE PLANTED IN RICH, WELLCULTIVATED, MOISTURE-RICH SOILS IN PARTIAL SHADE. SEEDS PROBABLY HARVESTED AT THE END OF THE GROWING
SEASON. BOWN (2001) NOTES THAT SPIDER MITES CAN BE A PROBLEM UNDER GLASS.
CHEMISTRY (NEPALESE CARDAMOM) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN
NEPALESE CARDAMOM. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://
WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BETA-PINENE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; CANDIDICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; HERBICIDE;
IRRITANT; SPASMOGENIC; LD50 = 4700 MG/KG ORL RAT.
CARDAMOMIN — ANTIEBV IC50 = 3.1 ΜM; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 3.14 ΜM.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
LIMONENE — SEE ALSO CARUM CARVI.
AMOMUM COMPACTUM SOLAND. EX MATON (ZINGIBERACEAE)
CLUSTER CARDAMOM, JAVA CARDAMOM, ROUND CARDAMOM, SIAM CARDAMOM
SYNONYMS — AMOMUM KEPULAGA SPRAGUE & BURK.
MEDICINAL USES (ROUND CARDAMOM) — ACCORDING TO HARTWELL (1982), THE PLANTS ARE USED IN FOLK
REMEDIES FOR INDURATIONS OF THE LIVER AND UTERUS, AND FOR CANCER. REPORTED TO BE ANTITOXIC, ANTIEMETIC,
CARMINATIVE, AND STOMACHIC. RARELY USED ALONE IN CHINA, MORE FREQUENTLY USED IN COMBINATIONS
(E.G., MIXED WITH FRESH EGG YOLKS), IT IS USED DURING PARTURITION. USED, ALONG WITH OTHER COSMETIC
FRAGRANCES, IN A MALAYAN RECIPE FOR MADNESS (DAD).
INDICATIONS (ROUND CARDAMOM) — AGUE (F; DAD); ALZHEIMER’S (1; FNF); BACTERIA (1; FNF);
BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF); CACHEXIA (1; DAD; FNF); CANCER (1; DAD; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F;
DAD; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (F; DAD; JLH); CATARRH (F; DAD); CHILDBIRTH (F; DAD); COLD (1; DAD;
FNF); COUGH (1; FNF); CRAMP (1; DAD; FNF); DYSPEPSIA (F; DAD); FATIGUE (1; FNF); FLU (1;
FNF); GOUT (1; DAD; FNF); HEARTBURN (F; DAD); HEPATOSIS (F; DAD; JLH); INDURATION (F; JLH);
INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); MADNESS (F; DAD); NAUSEA (F; DAD); OPHTHALMIA (F;
DAD); PAIN (1; FNF); RHEUMATISM (1; DAD; FNF); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; FNF); TRICHOMONAS (1;
FNF); ULCER (1; FNF); UTEROSIS (F; JLH); VOMITING (F; DAD).
ROUND CARDAMOM FOR ALZHEIMER’S:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-TERPINEOL
• ACHE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVONE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTICHOLINESTERASE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE
• CNS-STIMULANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; CARVONE
ROUND CARDAMOM FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; LIMONENE; PCYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: BORNEOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; CARVONE; LIMONENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; LIMONENE
ROUND CARDAMOM FOR CRAMP:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE; LIMONENE
• CARMINATIVE: CAMPHOR; CARVONE
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNEOL; CARVONE; CARYOPHYLLENE;
LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
OTHER USES (ROUND CARDAMOM) — ONE OF THE TWO MORE IMPORTANT CARDAMOMS OF INDONESIA.
RUMPF PREFERRED THEM FOR CULINARY PURPOSES TO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM. AT ONE TIME, THE FRUIT WAS
OFFICIAL IN THE FRENCH CODEX. GRIEVE’S HERBAL SPECULATES THAT THE ROUND CARDAMOMS OF DIOSCORIDES
ARE THOSE CALLED AMOMI UVA BY PLINY (PERHAPS A. GLOBOSUM). THE FRUITS SERVE AS A WARM AROMATIC
SPICE. FRUITS HAVE A SWEET, TURPENTINE AROMA AND FLAVOR AND ARE USED AS A SPICE OR CHEWED TO SWEETEN
THE BREATH. SEEDS ARE USED IN CAKES IN MALAYSIA (FAC). IN JAVA, HEARTS OF THE YOUNG SHOOTS OF CLOSELY
RELATED AMOMUM MAXIMUM, ALSO CALLED JAVA CARDAMOM, ARE EATEN AS LABLAB. YOUNG INFLORESCENCES
AND YOUNG FRUITS ARE ALSO COOKED WITH RICE AND EATEN. THE FRESH JUICY ARIL OF RIPE SEEDS OF THAT
SPECIES ARE A RELISHED DELICACY (DAD). YOUNG, PUNGENT SHOOTS ARE EATEN RAW, ROASTED, OR COOKED
AND SERVED WITH RICE (FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (ROUND CARDAMOM) — PLANTED FROM SMALL SEGMENTS OF THE RHIZOME, USUALLY IN
PREPARED GROUND UNDER TREES, E.G., COCONUT. PROBABLY CULTIVATED LIKE THE TRUE CARDAMOM OR OTHER
GINGER RELATIVES, BY RHIZOME DIVISIONS OR RHIZOME CUTTINGS, AS NEW GROWTH RESUMES. THESE ARE
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PLANTED IN RICH, WELL-CULTIVATED, RELATIVELY MOISTURE RICH SOILS, WITH PARTIAL SHADE. SEEDS PROBABLY
HARVESTED AT THE END OF THE GROWING SEASON. BOWN (2001) NOTES THAT SPIDER MITES CAN BE A PROBLEM
UNDER GLASS.
CHEMISTRY (ROUND CARDAMOM) — ROUGHLY A KILOGRAM OF ROOTS AND RHIZOME WILL GIVE A CUBIC
CENTIMETER OF EO. SEEDS YIELD 2.4% OIL WITH THE AROMA OF BORNEOL AND CAMPHOR, BOTH OF WHICH
HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED IN THE OIL, ALSO TERPINEOL. THE FRUIT OIL CONTAINS 12% CINEOLE. PURSEGLOVE ET AL.
(1981), CASTING DOUBT ON EARLIER ANALYSES, REPORT 1,8-CINEOLE AS THE MAJOR CONSTITUENT (67%), WITH
16% BETA-PINENE, 4% ALPHA-PINENE, 5% ALPHA-TERPINEOL, 3% HUMULENE, SOME P-CYMENE, LIMONENE,
MYRCENE, D-CAMPHOR, CARVONE, MYRTENAL, D-BORNEOL, ALPHA- AND GAMMA-TERPINEOL, TERPINEN-4-OL,
CARYOPHYLLENE, AND HUMULENE EPOXIIDE II, BUT NO ALPHA-TERPINYL ACETATE. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE
NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ROUND CARDAMOM. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND
THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND
THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PINENE — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTIINFLAMMATORY;
ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIVIRAL; COLEOPTIPHILE; EXPECTORANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 30 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE (50
PPM); INSECTIPHILE; IRRITANT; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.087 ΜM; SEDATIVE; SPASMOGENIC; TRANQUILIZER; TRANSDERMAL.
BETA-PINENE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; CANDIDICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; HERBICIDE;
IRRITANT; SPASMOGENIC; LD50 = 4700 MG/KG ORL RAT.
BORNEOL — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYTLCHOLINE; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 125–250 ΜG/ML;
ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOTITIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISALMONELLA MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.008 MG/ML; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC
MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; CNS-TOXIC; FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 470 MM, IC50 = 470 ΜM; INHALANT; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT;
MYORELAXANT; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEMATICIDE MLC =
1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRANQUILIZER; LDLO = 2000 (ORL RBT).
D-BORNEOL — CONVULSANT; EMETIC; FRAGRANCE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 1059 MG/KG ORL RAT.
BORNYL-ACETATE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.09 MG/ML; ANTIVIRAL; EXPECTORANT; INSECTIFUGE; MYORELAXANT; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 933 NL/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 933 NL/ML;
SEDATIVE.
CAMPHOR — ALLELOPATHIC; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIACNE; ANTICANCER; ANTIDIARRHEA 500 ΜG/ML;
ANTIDYSENTERIC 500 ΜG/ML; ANTIEMETIC 100–200 MG MAN ORL; ANTIFEEDANT IC50 = 5000 PPM DIET;
ANTIFIBROSITIC; ANTIITCH; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.075 MG/ML; CNS-STIMULANT; CARMINATIVE; CONVULSANT; COSMETIC; COUNTERIRRITANT; DECONGESTANT; DELIRIANT; ECBOLIC;
EMETIC; EPILEPTIGENIC; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE ED50 = 2.7 MM; HERBICIDE IC50 = 3.3–180 MM;
INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 1 MG/ML; OCULOIRRITANT; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 7.89
ΜM; PESTICIDE; RESPIRAINHIBITOR; RESPIRASTIMULANT; RUBEFACIENT; STIMULANT; TRANSDERMAL; VERRUCOLYTIC; VIBRIOCIDE 500 ΜG/ML; LD = 1200 MG/KG IPR RAT.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
APIUM GRAVEOLENS L. (APIACEAE)
CELERY
MEDICINAL USES (CELERY) — REGARDED AS APERIENT, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, NERVINE,
SEDATIVE, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC. ECLECTICS SUGGESTED THE HERBAL OR ROOT INFUSION FOR
BRONCHOSIS, INTERMITTENT FEVER, NEUROSIS, AND RHEUMATISM. THE BRUISED PLANT IS APPLIED TOPICALLY AS
AN ANALGESIC (FEL). CELERYSEED EXTRACT IS THE ONLY “MEDICINE” I TAKE EVERY DAY, AND EITHER CELERY
SEED, OLD AGE, OR SERENDIPITY HAS PREVENTED GOUT CRISES FOR 6 YEARS, SINCE I DISCONTINUED THE
PHARMACEUTICAL ALLOPURINOL. AYURVEDIC SCIENTISTS SAID IN 1976 THAT CELERY PREVENTS RHEUMATISM AND
GOUT. HILDEGARDE VON BINGEN REPORTED ITS USE FOR GOUT (“GICHT”) CLOSER TO 1000 YEARS AGO. THEY
COULD NOT HAVE KNOWN THEN THAT APIGENIN WAS A COX-2 INHIBITOR. AFTER CHAMOMILE (TO 0.6%), CELERY
STALKS (TO 0.2%) ARE THE BEST SOURCE OF APIGENIN CITED IN MY USDA DATABASE. MAYBE CHAMOMILE
WOULD BE AS USEFUL FOR GOUT AS CELERYSEED AND CELERY STALKS ARE.
WEED (2002) SUGGESTS HEAVY CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN SPICES WHEN ESTROGEN LEVELS ARE DOWN.
SEEDS LIKE ANISE, CARAWAY, CELERY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, AND FENNEL CONTAIN PHYTOESTROGENS, AS DO THEIR
OILS, SAYS WEED. SHE SUGGESTS USING THESE SEEDS “LAVISHLY” WHEN COOKING OR MAKING TEA WITH ANY
ONE OF THEM, DRINKING 3 TO 4 CUPS A DAY “FOR BEST RESULTS” (WEED, 2002). A YELLOWISH OIL DERIVED
FROM THE ROOTS IS SAID TO REPAIR SEXUAL IMPOTENCE BROUGHT ABOUT BY ILLNESS. A RHEUMATISM REMEDY
RECOMMENDED IN THE OLD HERBALS SOUNDS PRETTY POTENT. IT COMBINES THE “APHRODISIAC” CELERY WITH
THE “APHRODISIAC” DAMIANA AND THE NARCOTIC COCA, SOURCE OF COCAINE. THAT SHOULD AT LEAST TAKE ONE’S
MIND OFF THE RHEUMATISM.
THE HERBAL PDR (PH2) NOTES THAT ANIMAL TESTS DEMONSTRATED ANTICONVULSIVE AND SEDATIVE, BUT
NOT DIURETIC EFFECTS, FOR THE ROOTS, SEEDS, AND STALKS. THE EO INHIBITS BACTERIA AND FUNGI BUT NOT
DRAMATICALLY (PH2), AND IT HAS ANTICONVULSANT AND TRANQUILIZING ACTIVITIES IN RATS (MPI). CELERY JUICE
AND STALKS HAVE BEEN REPORTED TO LOWER BLOOD PRESSURE IN HYPERTENSIVE HUMANS (HAD). THIS MAY
SEEM CONTRADICTORY, SINCE CELERY STALKS ARE RATHER RICH IN SODIUM (ABOUT 50 MG PER AVERAGE SERVING).
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OF COURSE, THE ROLE OF SALT IN HYPERTENSION HAS FLIP-FLOPPED RECENTLY ANYHOW. IS IT BAD OR NOT? CARDIAC
AND HYPERTENSIVE PATIENTS ARE STILL OFTEN ADVISED TO AVOID CELERY (BUT REMEMBER, THE EQUIVALENT OF
FOUR STALKS A DAY HAS BEEN SHOWN TO LOWER HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE). RINZLER (1990) TELLS US THAT A
TEASPOON OF CELERY SEED ON A SALAD ADDS ONLY 3 MG SODIUM, AN AMOUNT CONSIDERED LOW. IN A STUDY
OF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE THAT CELERY EXTRACTS (IPR
INJECTED IN RATS) SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED SERUM CHOLESTEROL CONCENTRATIONS. IN WISTAR RATS FED HIGHCHOLESTEROL DIETS, THOSE RATS ALSO FED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS HAD SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER TOTAL SERUM CHOLESTEROL,
LDL CHOLESTEROL, AND TRIGLYCERIDES (PM61:18). EXTRACTS OF THE SEEDS OR PHYTOCHEMICALS THEREIN
SHOWED ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTITUMOR, HEPATOPROTECTIVE, AND HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC EFFECTS (KHAN AND
BALICK, 2001).
AS A NATURAL COX-2 INHIBITOR, APIGENIN MAY JUST DESERVE AS MUCH HYPE AS THE SYNTHETIC COX2-INHIBITORS, ALLEVIATING ARTHRITIS, GOUT, INFLAMMATION, RHEUMATISM, AND POSSIBLY PREVENTING ALZHEIMER’S AND CANCER. JEONG ET AL. (1999) SCREENED 28 FLAVONOIDS FOR INHIBITORY EFFECTS AGAINST AROMATASE
(PREPARED FROM HUMAN PLACENTA). OVER 50% OF THE FLAVONOIDS SIGNIFICANTLY INHIBITED AROMATASE
ACTIVITY, WITH APIGENIN STRONGEST AT IC50 = 0.9 ΜG/ML, HESPERETIN NEXT AT 1.0 ΜG/ML, AND CHRYSIN AT
1.1 ΜG/ML (JEONG ET AL., 1999). DEC. 10, 2001, NBC NATIONAL NEWS HIGHLY PRAISED SYNTHETIC AROMATASE
INHIBITORS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTAINMENT OF BREAST CANCERS. THERE WAS, EXPECTEDLY, NO MENTION
OF THE NATURAL AROMATASE INHIBITORS. BUT A QUICK LOOK AT PUBMED ABSTRACTS SHOWED THAT SEVERAL
NATURAL FLAVONOIDS WERE ALSO ACTIVE, SOME AT LEVELS 1/10TH AS POTENT AS THE POSSIBLY MORE DANGEROUS
SYNTHETICS. HERE’S JUST ONE MORE LINE OF EVIDENCE THAT A VARIETY OF VEGETABLES CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE
PREVENTION AND HENCE REDUCTION OF CANCER. CELERY AND CHAMOMILE ARE MY TOP SOURCES OF APIGENIN
WHICH IS ONE FIFTH TO ONE TENTH AS POTENT AS THE SYNTHETICS. ON THE NEGATIVE SIDE, SAARINEN ET AL.
(2001), AWARE OF THE IN VITRO ANTIAROMATASE ACTIVITY, WERE UNABLE TO FIND SUCH ACTIVITY IN VIVO. IN
RATS GIVEN DOSES OF 50 MG/KG, NEITHER APIGENIN, CHRYSIN, NOR NARINGENIN INHIBITED AROMATASE. THEY
SUSPECTED THIS LACK OF INHIBITION MAY HAVE BEEN DUE TO RELATIVELY POOR ABSORPTION AND/OR BIOAVAILABILITY OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS (SAARINEN ET AL., 2001). TURMERIC AND TAMARIND MIGHT POSSIBLY IMPROVE
AVAILABILITY. BOIK (2001) CERTAINLY PRAISES APIGENIN, IF NOT CELERY OR CELERYSEED, AS A CANCER PREVENTIVE. MORE THAN 26 STUDIES ON THE FLAVONES APIGENIN AND/OR LUTEOLIN SHOW THAT THEY INHIBIT A WIDE
VARIETY OF CANCER CELL LINES USUALLY AT LEVELS OF 1–50 ΜM. BOIK (2001) REPORTS ONLY ONE ANIMAL STUDY
OF APIGENIN, WHEREIN IPR APIGENIN INHIBITED GROWTH AND METASTASIS OF MELANOMA IN MICE AT 25–50
MG/KG, ROUGHLY EQUIVALENT TO HUMAN DOSES OF 1.2–2.5 APIGENIN A DAY IN MAN. APIGENIN MAY HAVE
SOME ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY (BO2), BUT ONLY 16% THE ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY OF GENISTEIN, WHICH “APPEARS
CAPABLE OF PRODUCING AN ESTROGENIC EFFECT AND STIMULATING CANCER GROWTH.” LUTEOLIN SEEMS CA. 58%
AS ESTROGENIC, RESVERATROL 22%, AND QUERCETIN CA. 10% AS ESTROGENIC. THE FLAVONES ARE MORE POTENT
ANTIOXIDANTS THAN VITAMIN C, APIGENIN CA. 1.5 TIMES MORE POTENT, RESVERATROL 2 TIMES, QUERCETIN 4.7
TIMES, AND OPCS NEARLY 5 TIMES AS POTENT. IN SCAVENGING FREE RADICALS, THESE COMPOUNDS CAN ALSO
PREVENT CANCER. MY DATABASE LISTS SEVERAL MECHANISMS BY WHICH APIGENIN MIGHT PREVENT CANCER AND
IMPROVE CELL-TO-CELL COMMUNICATION: ANTIANGIOGENIC (AT 4 ΜM), ANTIAROMATASE (IC50 = 0.9 ΜG/ML),
ANTIHISTAMINIC (IC50 = 10–35 ΜM), ANTILEUKEMIC (20–50 ΜM), ANTIMELANOMIC (1–50 ΜM), ANTIMETASTATIC (1–50 ΜM), ANTIMUTAGENIC (IC50 = 10–40), ANTIPROLIFERANT (1–50 ΜM), APOPTOTIC, COX-2-
INHIBITOR (<40 ΜM), CYTOTOXIC (1–50 ΜM), BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR (IC50 = ~40 ΜM), HYALURONIDASE-INHIBITOR (IC50+ = 50–250 ΜM), P21-INDUCER (10–70 ΜM), P450-INDUCER PKC-INHIBITOR
(IC50 = 10–40 ΜM), POLYAMINE-SYNTHESIS-INHIBITOR, PTK-INHIBITOR (10–100 ΜM), QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 20 ΜM, RAS-CASCADE INHIBITOR, TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR
(IC28 = 18 ΜM). SO WE HAVE ONE FLAVONE WITH MORE THAN A DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES THAT COULD REDUCE
THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER, AND WE HAVE AT LEAST HALF A DOZEN OTHER FLAVONOIDS DOING MANY OF THE SAME
THINGS IN SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT LEVELS. I PRESUME THAT IS WHAT EMBOLDENS BOIK TO PREDICT SYNERGIES AMONG
THESE FOOD FARMACEUTICALS. BOLDLY HE CALCULATES SOME TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 1.2–2.5 G/DAY (AS
SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTITUMOR STUDIES), 0.66–4.1 G DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY
STUDIES), LEADING TO A TARGET DOSE OF 1,500 MG/DAY APIGENIN. EVEN MORE SPECULATIVELY, HE SUGGESTS
THAT SYNERGIES WITH OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS MAY REDUCE THAT MINIMUM ANTITUMOR DOSE TO 100 MG
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
APIGENIN/DAY, PARALLELING HIS MINIMUM ANTICANCER DOSE FOR GENISTEIN (E.G., IN BEANS). HE COMES OUT
WITH A MINIMUM ANTITUMOR DOSE OF 170 MG LUTEOLIN AND 250 MG QUERCETIN THROUGH SIMILAR CALCULATIONS. LOOKS LIKE GOOD REASONING FOR CURRIED BEAN/CELERY SOUP WITH PLENTY OF ONION FOR ITS QUERCETIN
AND GARLIC FOR ITS DADS, ETC. APIGENIN IS REPORTEDLY, LIKE QUERCETIN, BOTH AN INDUCER AND INHIBITOR
OF P450 ENZYMES, REPORTEDLY INHIBITING AT (IC50 = 1.35 ΜM, IIIA-4; 100 ΜG AND IC50 = 0.1 ΜM,
INDUCING AT 5 ΜM/RAT IPR). FOR MORE INFORMATION, YOU SHOULD CONSULT DR. FLOCKHART’S DATABASE AT
GEORGETOWN (HTTP://WWW.DML.GEORGETOWN.EDU/DEPTS/PHARMACOLOGY/DAVETAB.HTML).
CELERY SEED OIL IS BACTERIOSTATIC AGAINST BACILLUS PUMILUS, BACILLUS SUBTILIS, CORYNEBACTERIUM
DIPTHERIAE, PSEUDOMONAS SOLANACEARUM, SALMONELLA TYPHI, SHIGELLA DYSENTERIAE, STAPHYLOCOCCUS
ALBUS, STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, STREPTOCOCCUS FAECALIS, STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES, AND VIBRIO CHOLERAE.
CELERY SHOWED POTENT ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES AGAINST BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS,
AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999). THE OIL SHOWS A CHEMOTACTIC EFFECT AND CERCARICIDAL ACTIVITY OF THE
CERCARIA OF SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI (SPI).
INDICATIONS (CELERY) — ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); AMENORRHEA (F; CRC; DEP; KAB); ANASARCA
(F; CRC; DEP; KAB; WO2); ANOREXIA (F; KAB; PHR; PH2); ANXIETY (1; APA); ARTHROSIS (1; APA;
FNF; PNC); ASCITES (F; KAB); ASTHMA (F; DEP; JFM; KAB); BACILLUS (1; X10548758); BACTERIA
(1; PH2); BRONCHOSIS (F; DEP; KAB); CANCER (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, BREAST (1; CRC; FNF);
CANCER, EYE (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, FOOT (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, LIVER (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER,
PENIS (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, STOMACH (1; CRC; FNF; JAC7:405);
CANCER, TESTES (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, UTERUS (1; CRC; FNF); CANCER, VULVA (1; CRC; FNF);
CARDIOPATHY (1; APA; KAB); CATARRH (F; KAB); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; PH2); COLIC (F; DEP; MBB;
WO2); CONDYLOMA (F; JLH); CONGESTION (F; JFM); CONVULSION (F; KAP); CORN (F; CRC; JLH);
COUGH (F; KAB; PH2); CRAMP (1; FNF); CYSTOSIS (1; APA; CAN; FNF; MBB); DEPRESSION (F;
PED); DIABETES (F; APA; MAM); DYSMENORRHEA (F; APA; JFM); DYSPEPSIA (F; APA); DYSURIA (F;
KAB); EDEMA (1; FNF; JFM); ENTEROSIS (F; KAB); EPILEPSY (1; PNC; WO2); ESCHERICHIA (1;
X10548758); EXHAUSTION (F; PH2); FELON (F; CRC; JLH); FEVER (F; FEL; KAB); FUNGUS (1; PH2;
X10548758); GALLSTONE (F; PHR); GAS (1; CRC; JFM); GASTROSIS (1; JAC7:405); GOUT (1; CAN;
FNF; MBB; MPI; PH2); HEPATOSIS (F; APA; CRC; DEP; JLH); HICCUP (F; KAB); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (2; APA; CRC; FNF; PNC); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; APA; PM61:18); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1;
PM61:18); IMPOSTUME (F; JLH); INDURATION (F; CRC; JLH); INFECTION (1; X10548758); INFLAMMATION
(1; FNF; KAB); INSOMNIA (1; APA; FNF; PNC); JAUNDICE (F; JFM); KIDNEY STONE (F; PHR);
LUMBAGO (F; CRC); MALARIA (F; FEL); NAUSEA (F; KAB); NEPHROSIS (F; APA; PH2); NERVOUS ANXIETY
(F; APA; PHR); OBESITY (F; APA); OPHTHALMIA (F; KAB); OVARY (F; PH2); PAIN (1; FNF; KAB);
PROCTOSIS (F; KAB); PULMONOSIS (F; JFM); RHEUMATISM (1; CAN; CRC; FEL; FNF; MPI; PH2);
RHINOSIS (F; KAB); SCABIES (F; KAB); SCHISTOSOMA (1; SPI); SCIRRHUS (F; JLH); SORE (F; CRC);
SPLENOSIS (F; CRC; DEP; JLH; KAB; WO2); STING (F; KAB); STOMACHACHE (F; CRC; JFM); STONE
(F; DEP; PHR; PH2); STRESS (1; APA); SWELLING (1; FNF; MBB); TOOTHACHE (F; KAB); TUMOR (1;
CRC; FNF; JLH); UTEROSIS (F; JFM); UTI (1; CAN; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WEN (F; JLH);
WHITLOW (F; CRC; JLH); WORM (1; X11305251); YEAST (1; X10548758).
CELERY FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ADENOSINE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; APIGENIN; BERGAPTEN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; FALCARINDIOL; FERULIC-ACID; IMPERATORIN; KAEMPFEROL; MENTHONE;
MYRISTICIN; NODAKENIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; THYMOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
FUMARIC-ACID; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LINALYL-ACETATE; LUTEOLIN; MANNITOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXYCINNAMIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUICACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; SINAPIC-ACID; THYMOL
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISTRESS: MYRISTICIN
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANXIOLYTIC: APIGENIN
• ARTERIODILATOR: ADENOSINE; FERULIC-ACID
• CARDIODEPRESSANT: GUAIACOL
• CARDIOTONIC: GUAIACOL
• DIURETIC: ADENINE; APIGENIN; APIOLE; ASPARAGINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; GLYCOLICACID; ISOPIMPINELLIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; MANNITOL; MYRISTICIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• HYPOTENSIVE: ADENOSINE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ANGELICIN; APIGENIN; BENZYL-BENZOATE; BERGAPTEN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; PSORALEN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN;
SCOPARONE; SCOPOLETIN; VALERIC-ACID
• MYOCARDIOTONIC: ADENINE
• SEDATIVE: ADENOSINE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANGELIC-ACID; ANGELICIN; APIGENIN;
CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVONE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CITRONELLAL; EUGENOL; GERANYLACETATE; IMPERATORIN; ISOVALERIC-ACID; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MENTHONE;
METHYL-PHTHALIDES; MYRISTICIN; P-CYMENE; PERILLALDEHYDE; SEDANENOLIDE; THYMOL;
VALERIC-ACID
• VASODILATOR: ADENINE; ADENOSINE; APIGENIN; APIOLE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN;
QUERCETIN; SCOPARONE
CELERY FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: ADENOSINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FALCARINDIOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GENTISIC-ACID; MENTHONE; MYRCENE; NICOTINE; OSTHOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; SCOPARONE;
SCOPOLETIN; THYMOL
• ANESTHETIC: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; FORMALDEHYDE; GUAIACOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE;
MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; THYMOL
• ANTIARTHRITIC: THYMOL
• ANTIDERMATITIC: APIGENIN; FUMARIC-ACID; GUAIACOL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; APIGENIN; BERGAPTEN; BETA-PINENE;
BUTYLIDENE-PHTHALIDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHLOROGENICACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CNIDILIDE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; IMPERATORIN;
ISOPIMPINELLIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; MANNITOL; MYRISTICIN; OSTHOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-O-GALACTOSIDE; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SCOPARONE; SCOPOLETIN; THYMOL;
UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; LIGUSTILIDE; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIRHEUMATIC: GENTISIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; THYMOL
• ANTISPASMODIC: ADENOSINE; ANGELICIN; APIGENIN; APIIN; APIOLE; BENZYL-BENZOATE; BERGAPTEN; BUTYLIDENE-PHTHALIDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CNIDILIDE;
EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; HERNIARIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGUSTILIDE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; LUTEOLIN; MANNITOL; MENTHONE; METHYL-PHTHALIDES; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARICACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PSORALEN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE;
VALERIC-ACID; XANTHOTOXIN; Z-LIGUSTILIDE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• COUNTERIRRITANT: THYMOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; THYMOL
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; KAEMPFEROL;
LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MYORELAXANT: ADENOSINE; ANGELICIN; APIGENIN; BENZYL-BENZOATE; LIGUSTILIDE; LUTEOLIN; RUTIN;
SCOPARONE; SCOPOLETIN; THYMOL; VALERIC-ACID
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER USES (CELERY) — THE LEAF STALK IS THE BETTER KNOWN PART OF THE PLANT IN AMERICA. THEY
ARE BLANCHED AND EATEN RAW IN SALADS, OR BRAISED, FRIED OR STEAMED, OR STUFFED WITH CREAM CHEESE,
PEANUT BUTTER, OR PIMENTA CHEESE. THEY ARE ADDED TO CASSEROLES, JUICES, SOUPS, STEWS, STUFFINGS,
AND CASSEROLES. LEAVES AND SEEDS ARE BOTH OFTEN USED IN CONTINENTAL COOKERY, WHERE THE LEAVES
ARE ADDED AT THE LAST MOMENT TO BROTH, SOUPS, STEWS, AND STUFFING. DRIED LEAVES, OCCASIONALLY
MARKETED AS “CELERY FLAKES,” ARE STRONGER FLAVORED THAN SEEDS. THEY TOO ARE ADDED TO SALADS AND
SANDWICHES (FAC). CELERY SEED, SEED EXTRACT, AND OIL ARE USED FOR FLAVORING BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, HERBAL SALTS AND PEPPERS (CELERY SEED WITH BLACK PEPPER), JUICES, OMELETTES, PICKLES, SOUPS,
STEWS, ETC. CELERY JUICE IS OFTEN BLENDED WITH CARROT, PARSLEY, AND SPINACH JUICES, AT MY HOUSE
MORE OFTEN WITH CARROT, GARLIC, AND ONION, WHICH I CONSIDER GREAT FOR PREVENTING HYPERTENSION
(FAC, JAD). RINZLER ADDS THAT CELERY SEEDS ARE THE SMALLEST SEEDS USED AS A SPICE OR FLAVORING,
760,000 SEED TO THE POUND. THE SEED OR THE OIL DERIVED THEREFROM ARE USED IN CELERY SALT, CELERY
TONIC, LIQUEURS, PERFUMES, SOUPS, STEWS, AND TOILET WATERS. THE FRENCH PREPARE FROM CELERYSEED,
THE LIQUEUR CALLED CREME D’CELERY, WHICH DOES NOT DIFFER GREATLY IN FLAVOR FROM KUMMEL. THE
RECIPE MAY CONTAIN CELERY SEED, PLUS OR MINUS CARAWAY, CUMIN OR FENNEL, CRUSHED AND STEEPED IN
SUGARED VODKA. ANISE MAY BE ADDED BUT WITH CARE, OR IT WILL BE THE DOMINANT FLAVOR (FAC, JAD).
THE SEED OIL LENDS A FLORAL-LIKE ODOR TO ORIENTAL PERFUMES, IMPARTING A WARM AND CLINGING NOTE
(VERNIN AND PARKANYI, 1994). NAKATANI’S SUMMARY OF MORI ET AL.’S STUDY (1974) “ESSENTIAL OILS
OF CELERY, CINNAMON, CORIANDER AND CUMIN” WERE COMPARABLE TO SORBIC ACID AT PREVENTING THE
SLIMY SPOILAGE OF VIENNA SAUSAGE (NAKATANI, 1994, SPI).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (CELERY) — SLOW STARTING AND SLOW GROWING, THIS WELL-KNOWN BIENNIAL VEGETABLE IS
NOT SO WELL KNOWN AS AN HERB. START SEEDS INDOORS, QUITE EARLY, FOR TRANSPLANT TO THE FIELD. THE SLOWLY
GERMINATING SEEDLINGS REQUIRE HARDENING FOR FROST AND DROUGHT. ORIGINALLY, THE PLANT WAS RATHER
TOLERANT OF SALINE MARSHY SOILS. IT IS DIFFICULT TO GROW THE VEGETABLE, EASIER TO GROW THE HERBAGE.
LEAVES, AS OPPOSED TO CELERY STALKS, CAN BE HARVESTED ANYTIME AND USED FRESH IF DRIED SLOWLY. STALK
YIELDS OF 20–30 TONS/A ARE POSSIBLE (DUKE, 1985).
CHEMISTRY (CELERY) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CELERYSEED. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM,
DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
APIGENIN — ANTIAFLATOXIC IC50 = 9.52 ΜM, IC50 = 2.57 PPM; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIANGIOGENIC 4 ΜM; ANTIARRHYTHMIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICOMPLEMENTARY; ANTIDERMATITIC; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC IC50 = 10–35 ΜM; ANTIHIV IC72 = 200 ΜG/ML, IC50 = 143
ΜG/ML; ANTIHYALURONIDASE IC50+ = 50–250 ΜM; ANTIINFLAMMATORY (= INDOMETHACIN), IC~65 = 1,000
ΜM; ANTILEUKEMIC 20–50 ΜM; ANTIMELANOMIC 1–50 ΜM; ANTIMETASTATIC 1–50 ΜM; ANTIMUTAGENIC
ID50 = 10–40 NM; ANTIOXIDANT 1.5 × VIT. E; ANTIPROLIFERANT 1–50 ΜM; ANTISPASMODIC EC50 = 1–5
ΜM; ANTITHYROID; ANTITUMOR 1–50 ΜM; ANTITUMOR (BREAST) 1–50 ΜM; ANTITUMOR (LUNG); ANTITUMOR
(SKIN); ANTIVIRAL; ANXIOLYTIC 10 MG/KG; APOPTOTIC 12–60 ΜM; AROMATASE-INHIBITOR IC65 = 1 ΜM/L;
11B-HSD-INHIBITOR; CALCIUM-BLOCKER?; CHOLERETIC; CNS-DEPRESSANT; COX-1-INHIBITOR IC65 = 1,000
ΜM; COX-2-INHIBITOR IC>65 = 1,000 ΜM, <40 ΜM; CYTOTOXIC IC88 = 10 ΜG/ML, 1–50 ΜM; DEIODINASEINHIBITOR; DIFFERENTIATOR MIC 30 ΜM, IC40 = 40 ΜM; DIURETIC; ESTROGENIC EC50 = 0.1–25 ΜM/L,
(16% GENISTEIN), EC50 = 1 ΜM; BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = ~40 ΜM; HYPOTENSIVE; INOTROPIC;
MAOI; MUSCULOTROPIC; MUTAGENIC; MYORELAXANT; NADH-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR; NO-INHIBITOR 5–50 ΜM;
NODULATION-SIGNAL; ODC-INHIBITOR; P21-INDUCER 10–70 ΜM; PKC-INHIBITOR IC50 = 10 ΜM; POLYAMINESYNTHESIS-INHIBITOR; PROGESTATIONAL; PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR IC50 = 10–40 ΜM; PTK-INHIBITOR
10–100 ΜM; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 20 ΜM; RADIOPROTECTIVE; SEDATIVE 30–100 MG/KG; SUNSCREEN; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC28 = 18 ΜM, IC45 = 180 ΜM, 50
ΜG/ML; UTEROTROPIC EC50 = 0.1–25 ΜM/L; VASODILATOR.
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
APIIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIARRHYTHMIC; ANTIBRADYKINIC; ANATISPASMODIC.
APIOLE — ABORTIFACIENT 5,000 ORL RBT; ANTIDYSMENORRHEIC; ANTIMALARIAL; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTIPYRETIC;
ANTIREPRODUCTIVE 0.013 MAN; ANTISPASMODIC; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST IC50 = 29.2 ΜM; CNS-STIMULANT
(= CAFFEINE); DIURETIC; EMMENAGOGUE; HEPATOTOXIC; INSECTICIDE; INTOXICANT; IRRITANT; SECRETOLYTIC;
SYNERGIST; UTEROTONIC; VASODILATOR; LDLO = 500 (SCU DOG); LDLO 25,000–35,000/MAN; LD 2,000 ORL
GPG; LD50 = 50 MG/KG IVN MUS.
SEDANENOLIDE — SEDATIVE.
SEDANOLIDE — ANTITUMOR 60 MG/MUS/6 DAYS.
ARMORACIA RUSTICANA P. GAERTN. ET AL. (BRASSICACEAE)
HORSERADISH
SYNONYMS — A. LAPATHIFOLIA GILIB. EX USTERI, COCHLEARIA ARMORACIA L., NASTURTIUM ARMORACIA
(L.) FR., RADICULA ARMORACIA (L.) B. L. ROB., RORIPPA ARMORACIA (L.) HITCHC.
MEDICINAL USES (HORSERADISH) — COULD HORSERADISH BE ONE OF THE BITTER HERBS OF THE BIBLE? WELL,
HORSERADISH IS REPORTEDLY ONE OF THE FIVE BITTER HERBS, WITH CORIANDER, HOREHOUND, LETTUCE, AND NETTLE,
DURING THE JEWISH PASSOVER (LIBSTER, 2002). NONE OF MY BIBLE BOOKS SUGGEST THAT HORSERADISH IS
ONE OF THE BITTER HERB(S). TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) TELL US THAT HORSERADISH WAS CULTIVATED PRIOR
TO THE EXODUS OF THE HEBREW SLAVES. BUT BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS IT MAY HAVE BEEN BROUGHT IN TO
CULTIVATION LESS THAN 2000 YEARS AGO, PERHAPS FIRST MEDICINAL, SECONDARILY SPICE, NOT “BECOMING
POPULAR AS A FLAVORING UNTIL THE LATE 16TH CENTURY.” IT IS BITTER AND SO IMPORTANT, TRADITIONALLY, IN OUR
MODERN PASSOVER FEASTS. CONSIDERED ANTISCORBUTIC, ANTISEPTIC, DIGESTIVE, DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT, RUBEFACIENT, STIMULANT, AND VERMIFUGE, HORSERADISH IS ABOUT AS USEFUL IN THE MEDICINE CHEST AS IT IS IN
THE SPICE RACK. IN ANCIENT TIMES, IT WAS USED AS A PREVENTATIVE OR CURE FOR MANY AILMENTS. ECLECTICS
SAID PICTURESQUELY, “IT PROMOTES ALL THE SECRETIONS, THE URINARY IN PARTICULAR, AND STIMULATES THE
STOMACH WHEN THIS ORGAN IS ENFEEBLED.” THE HOT CIDER INFUSION HAS BEEN RECOMMENDED FOR DROPSY
(FEL). “LOCALLY, THE VINEGAR INFUSION IS SAID TO REMOVE TAN AND FRECKLES” (FEL). THE HERB IS
APPROVED, INTERNALLY, BY GERMANY’S COMMISSION E FOR BRONCHOSIS, COUGHS, RESPIRATORY CATARRH, AND
UTIS, EXTERNALLY IN RUBEFACIENT LINIMENTS FOR RESPIRATORY AILMENTS AND MYALGIA (BGB, PH2). IN THE
U.S., HORSERADISH IS AN INGREDIENT IN THE PROPRIETARY RASAPEN, A UTI (BGB). NATIVE AMERICANS
HAVE EVEN INCORPORATED THE IMPORTED SPECIES INTO THEIR PHARMACOPOEIA AS WELL (DEM), ALSO USING
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IT FOR DIGESTIVE AND URINARY DISORDERS. REPORTEDLY, THEY USED IT FOR INDUCING ABORTIONS AS WELL,
THOUGH PROBABLY NOT EARLY ON WITH THE ECLECTIC PRESCRIPTION. ECLECTICS MADE A SATURATED WHISKEY
INFUSION OF NEW OR RECENT ROOTS, OF WHICH THEY RECOMMENDED 4 OZ, 3 OR 4 TIMES A DAY (THAT’S A PINT
A DAY IN MY BOOK) AND CONTINUING TREATMENT UNTIL THE ABORTION WAS OBTAINED (FEL). THE ROOT CAN
BE CHEWED FOR TOOTHACHE. HORSERADISH EXTRACTS ARE USED TO TREAT GOUT IN EUROPE, WHERE IT IS SAID TO
COMPARE FAVORABLY WITH SYNTHETICS (WOI). EXTRACTS ARE ALSO USED FOR HEPATOSIS. COOKED IN MILK
AND HONEY, IT IS USED FOLKLORICALLY FOR HOARSENESS. THE JUICE, IN VINEGAR, DILUTED WITH WATER AND
SWEETENED WITH GLYCERINE, WAS ONCE GIVEN TO CHILDREN WITH WHOOPING COUGH. HORSERADISH WAS ONCE
GIVEN TO CHILDREN WITH WORMS. ALSO USED FOR FACIAL NEURALGIA (GMH). THE PULP IS GOOD FOR SKIN
CANCER (WOI). EXTRACTS INHIBIT GROWTH OF ASCITES CARCINOMA IN MICE AND JENSEN SARCOMA IN RAT
(WO2). THE DOSE OFFERED BY THE HERBAL PDR (PH2) SEEMS A WEE BIT HIGH AT 20 G FRESH ROOT, THAT
IS CA. 2
/3 OZ, MORE THAN I COULD COMFORTABLY INGEST AT A SETTING. THE OIL IS ONE OF THE MOST HAZARDOUS
OF ALL EOS AND IS NOT RECOMMENDED FOR EITHER EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL USE (CAN). EXCESSIVE DOSES
MAY LEAD TO DIARRHEA OR NIGHT SWEATS. ONE CASE OF A HEART ATTACK HAS BEEN RECORDED; THE PATIENT
SURVIVED (TAD).
HORSERADISH IS ONE OF THE BETTER SOURCES OF ALLYLISOTHIOCYANATE (AITC), ALONG WITH THE
MUSTARDS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CABBAGE FAMILY, AND GARLIC MUSTARD. NIELSEN AND RIOS (2000)
SHOWED THAT VOLATILES CONTAINING AITC WERE MOST EFFECTIVE AT INHIBITING VARIOUS BREAD MOLDS:
PENICILLIUM COMMUNE, P. ROQUEFORTI, ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS, ENDOMYCES FIBULIGER, AND E. FIBULIGER.
USING VOLATILE EOS AND OLEORESINS FROM VARIOUS SPICES AND HERBS, THEY FOUND MUSTARD EO MOST
EFFICACIOUS, WITH CINNAMON, CLOVE, AND GARLIC ALSO HIGHLY ACTIVE, OREGANO ONLY SLIGHTLY ACTIVE.
THEY DID NOT ANALYZE HORSERADISH, BUT IT IS ALMOST AS PUNGENT AS THE MUSTARD AND LOADED WITH
AITC. THE MINIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION (MIC) FOR AITC WAS 1.8–3.5 ΜG/ML FOR THE VARIOUS
FUNGI AND YEAST. WHETHER AITC WAS FUNGISTATIC OR FUNGICIDAL DEPENDED ON ITS CONCENTRATION AND
THE CONCENTRATION OF SPORES. WHEN THE GAS PHASE CONTAINED AT LEAST 3.5 ΜG/ML, AITC WAS FUNGICIDAL
TO ALL TESTED FUNGI (X11016611). HORSERADISH PROVED ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA
COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES,
DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999).
FEARING CANCER, I MIGHT SEEK ISOTHIOCYANATES, I’D GO FOR A CRUCI-FIX, A SOLITARY DISH OR MIX OF
THE CRUCIFERS I HAD ON HAND. A SERIES OF NEW STUDIES REPORTED ON MEDLINE INDICATE THAT FEEDING
ISOTHIOCYANATES TO EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS PROTECTS THEM FROM CANCERS OF THE BREAST, ESOPHAGUS, LIVER,
LUNGS, MAMMARIES, AND STOMACH. DR. PAUL TALALAY, MD, JOHNS HOPKINS SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, REVIEWS
THE MECHANISMS BY WHICH ISOTHIOCYANATES BLOCK CARCINOGENESIS AND SUGGESTS THAT THEY ARE IDEAL FOR
CHEMOPREVENTION OF CANCERS. THE LIST OF WELL-KNOWN CRUCIFERS IS LONG AND TASTY: BROCCOLI, BRUSSELS
SPROUTS, CABBAGE, COLLARDS, CRESS, KALE, KOHLRABI, MUSTARD GREENS, PAK CHOY, RADISHES, TURNIP GREENS,
AND WATERCRESS. BOTH FOR FLAVOR AND OTHER SULFUR-CONTAINING CANCER-PREVENTING COMPOUNDS, I’D SPICE
UP MY CRUCI-FIX WITH THE LIKES OF CHIVES, GARLIC, LEEK, ONIONS, AND RAMPS. AND TO INCREASE THE FLAVOR
AND THE HEAT, I’D ADD A DASH OF CAYENNE AND TABASCO.
INDICATIONS (HORSERADISH) — ALLERGY (1; FNF; LIB; PED); ANOREXIA (F; APA; DEM); ARTHROSIS
(1; APA; BGB; CAN); ASTHMA (1; BGB; DEM; FNF); ATONY (F; FEL); BACILLUS (1; X10548758);
BACTERIA (2; FNF; HHB; KOM); BRONCHOSIS (2; APA; FNF; PHR; PH2; SKY); CANCER (1; FNF;
JLH); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (1; FNF); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, NOSE (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
STOMACH (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SKIN (1; FNF; JLH; WO2); CATARRH (2; KOM; PHR); CHILBLAIN (F;
GMH); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; PHR; PH2); COLD (1; DEM; FNF; SKY); COLIC (F; APA; PH2); CONGESTION
(1; APA); COUGH (2; GMH; PHR; PH2); CRAMP (1; HHB); CYSTOSIS (1; LIB; PHR); DEBILITY (F;
BOW); DENTAL PLAQUE (F; FAD); DIABETES (F; DEM; LIB); DROPSY (F; FEL; HHB); DYSMENORRHEA
(F; DEM); DYSPEPSIA (F; PHR; PH2; SKY); DYSURIA (2; CAN; PED; PHR); EDEMA (F; BGB; CAN);
ENTEROSIS (1; PH2; WO2); ESCHERICHIA (1; X10548758); FEVER (F; BOW); FLU (F; GMH; PHR; PH2);
FRECKLE (F; FEL); FUNGUS (1; FNF; HHB; X10548758); GASTROSIS (F; LIB); GLOSSOSIS (F; DEM);
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
GOUT (F; BGB; GMH; HHB; PHR; WO2); GRAVEL (F; DEM); HEPATOSIS (F; HHB; PHR; PH2); HIGH
BLOOD PRESSURE (1; LIB); HOARSENESS (F; FEL; GMH; WO2); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (2; FNF;
PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; CAN; FNF; PH2); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; HHB; X10548758); MYOSIS (2; BGB;
KOM; PH2); NEURALGIA (F; DEM; GMH); PAIN (1; DEM; FNF; PH2); PERICARDOSIS (F; BOW);
PERTUSSIS (F; GMH; LIB); PLEURISY (F; BOW); RESPIROSIS (2; APA; DEM; KOM; PHR; PH2);
RHEUMATISM (F; DEM; HHB; PHR); RHINOSIS (1; JLH; PED); SCIATICA (F; APA; BGB; GMH);
SINUSOSIS (1; LIB; SKY); SORE (F; LIB); SORE THROAT (F; LIB; SKY); SPLENOSIS (F; GMH; WO2);
STOMACHACHE (F; LIB); STOMATOSIS (F; DEM); STONE (1; CAN; LIB); SWELLING (F; BGB; JLH);
TOOTHACHE (F; DEM; LIB); TYPHOID (1; WO2); URETHROSIS (2; KOM; PH2); UTI (2; APA; BGB;
KOM; PH2); WORM (F; APA; GMH); WOUND (F; APA; BOW); YEAST (1; X10548758).
HORSERADISH FOR BRONCHOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: AESCULETIN; ALLYL-SULFIDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE;
P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RAPHANIN; SINAPIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: AESCULETIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SINAPIC-ACID;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: AESCULETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTISPASMODIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDICIDE: QUERCETIN
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• DECONGESTANT: ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
• EXPECTORANT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: SINIGRIN
HORSERADISH FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALLYL-SULFIDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; RUTOSIDE; SALICYLATES
• ANTICANCER: AESCULETIN; ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; PHYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SINAPIC-ACID; SINIGRIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SINAPIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: AESCULETIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTILEUKEMIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: 4-PENTENYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; AESCULETIN; ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SINAPIC-ACID;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTITUMOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: AESCULETIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: AESCULETIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• SUNSCREEN: AESCULETIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• UV-SCREEN: AESCULETIN
OTHER USES (HORSERADISH) — ACCORDING TO THE ORACLE AT DELPHI, “THE RADISH WAS WORTH ITS WEIGHT
IN LEAD, THE BEET ITS WEIGHT IN SILVER, AND THE HORSERADISH ITS WEIGHT IN GOLD.” IT IS HARD TO IMAGINE
PASSOVER, OR HOT ROAST BEEF, OR SHRIMP COCKTAIL SAUCE WITHOUT GRATED HORSERADISH. BACK AROUND 1600,
JOHN GERARDE SAID, “THE HORSE RADISH STAMPED WITH A LITTLE VINEGAR PUT THERETO, IS COMMONLY USED
AMONG THE GERMANS FOR SAUCE TO EAT FISH” (BOWN, 2001). THE SPICE IS CULTIVATED FOR ITS THICK, FLESHY
WHITE ROOT WHICH HAS A DELICIOUS, INTENSE PUNGENT AND COOLING TASTE. IT IS PRIMARILY USED IN COCKTAIL
SAUCES, VINEGARS, MUSTARDS, AND MIXED FLAVORINGS. IN 2000, THE U.S. WAS PRODUCING SOME 6 MILLION
GALLONS OF HORSERADISH SAUCE, ENOUGH TO SEASON A LINE OF SANDWICHES ESTIMATED TO ENCIRCLE THE EARTH
12 TIMES (TAD). TODAY, HORSERADISH PREPARATIONS MAY BE RED (PRESERVED IN BEET JUICE) OR WHITE
(PRESERVED IN VINEGAR) (FAC). POLISH SERVE A SPECIAL BEET/HORSERADISH CONDIMENT AT EASTER WITH HAM
AND/OR SAUSAGE (FAC). IN GERMANY, WHERE HORSERADISH IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CULTIVATED
MEDICINAL SPICE, LEAVES ARE EATEN AS A VEGETABLE AND IN SALADS. LEAVES CAN BE COOKED LIKE SPINACH.
ROOTS BROUGHT INDOORS TO A DARK PLACE CAN GIVE ETIOLATED WHITE SPROUTS BY CHRISTMAS OR BETTER YET,
EASTER. GERMANS ALSO COOK THE SLICED ROOTS AS A VEGETABLE, LIKE PARSNIP. GRATED ROOTS, MIXED WITH
VINEGAR AND SALT, ENHANCE FLAVOR OF MEATS AND SEAFOODS. ETHANOL EXTRACTS (TINCTURES) OF FRESH OR
PARTIALLY DRIED ROOTS ARE MORE LIABLE TO BE USED MEDICINALLY THAN CULINARILY. SLICED HORSERADISH IN
MILK IS SAID TO BE AN EXCELLENT COSMETIC; IN VINEGAR, IT HELPS TO REMOVE FRECKLES (FAC, WOI, WO2).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (HORSERADISH) — THE PLANT RARELY PRODUCES VIABLE SEED. PROPAGATION IS BY ROOT DIVISION
WITH A SECTION OF THE CROWN ATTACHED, WHICH IS CUT OFF WHEN THE ROOTS ARE HARVESTED IN LATE FALL.
THESE ARE OVERWINTERED IN A COOL HUMID CELLAR. THE CROP SEEMS TO FARE BETTER IN AVERAGE GARDEN
LOAMS, MOIST BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WET, PH 5.0–7.5 (AVERAGE 6.5) IN FULL SUN. IT IS HARDY TO ZONE 5
A
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(TAD). FRESH ROOTS CAN BE TEMPORARILY BURIED IN SAND OR SOIL. CUTTINGS (PIECES OF ROOTS CA. 1.5 IN.
OR 4 CM LONG) ARE OUTPLANTED AS SOON AS THE SOIL CAN BE WORKED, IN FURROWS 8–30 CM DEEP, AT
INTERVALS OF 60 CM IN ROWS 75 CM APART, TO GIVE A RATE OF ABOUT 22,000/HA. ROOT CUTTINGS INCREASE
IN DIAMETER BUT USUALLY NOT IN LENGTH. HOWEVER, BY CLEARING AWAY THE SOIL FROM THE UPPER PART OF
THE ROOT AND REMOVING FIBROUS SIDE-ROOTS, TAP ROOTS BECOME THICKER AND LONGER. ROOTS ARE READY FOR
USE 4–5 MONTHS AFTER OUTPLANTING (WOI, WO2). HERE AT THE GREEN FARMACY GARDEN, THE PLANT COMES
BACK EVEN AFTER YOU HARVEST IT, THE DEEPER LATERAL ROOTS AND/OR SEVERED TAPROOTS, KEEP COMING BACK
LIKE A SPICY SONG.
CHEMISTRY (HORSERADISH) — VOLATILE ISOTHIOCYANATES, LOCKED UP TEMPORARILY AS THE GLYCOSIDES
NASTURTIIN AND/OR SINIGRIN, ARE RELEASED WHEN HYDROLYZED BY THE ENZYME MYROSINASE OR THIOGLUCOSIDASE, ALSO PRESENT IN THE ROOT. THIS ENZYMATIC OXIDATION OF THE HOT COMPOUNDS IN HORSERADISH (AND
OTHER CRUCIFERS) RATHER PARALLELS WHAT HAPPENS WITH SOME HOT SULFUR-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS IN THE
GARLIC FAMILY AS WELL. THE ENZYMES GO INTO ACTION ONLY WHEN THE ROOT IS SCRATCHED. AND THESE SULFUR
COMPOUNDS SEEM TO BE VERY IMPORTANT IN CANCER PREVENTION WHEN USED IN MODERATION. HERE ARE A
FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN HORSERADISH. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993
(DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALLYL – ISOTHIOCYANATE—ANTIASTHMIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTISEPTIC; COUNTERIRRITANT; DECONGESTANT; EMBRYOTOXIC; FUNGICIDE MIC = 1.8–3.5 ΜG/ML; HERBICIDE IC100 = 0.4 MM;
INSECTIPHILE; MUTAGENIC; NEMATIOVISTAT 50 ΜG/ML; SPICE FEMA 1–80 PPM; LD50 = 339 ORL RAT.
ISOTHIOCYANATE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTISEPTIC; ANTITHYROID; ANTITUMOR; CHEMOPREVENTIVE;
FUNGICIDE; HYPOTENSIVE; GOITROGENIC; P450-INHIBITOR; MUCOLYTIC; NEMATICIDE; RESPIRADEPRESSANT;
LD50 = 120.
RUTOSIDE — ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY; CHOLERETIC (50 MG/KG IPR); COMT-INHIBITOR.
SINIGRIN — ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; LARVICIDE; MUTAGENIC; PHAGOSTIMULANT; QUINONE-REDUCTASEINDUCER 15 ΜM.
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
B
BIXA ORELLANA L. (BIXACEAE)
ACHIOTE, ANNATTO, ANNOTO, ARNATO, BIJA, LIPSTICK POD, LIPSTICK TREE
MEDICINAL USES (ANNATTO) — SEEDS AND LATEX USED FOR TUMORS, CANCER, AND CONDYLOMA. SEEDS
GARGLED WITH VINEGAR AND RICE WATER FOR CANCER OF THE MOUTH. LEAF INFUSION USED IN COSTA RICA TO
PREVENT BALDNESS. LEAF INFUSION GARGLED FOR TONSILITIS. BOLIVIANS PRESS LEAVES ON ACHING BODY PARTS.
SEEDS ARE REPORTEDLY APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, CORDIAL, EXPECTORANT (LAXATIVE AND VERMIFUGE), AND
FEBRIFUGAL. ASTRINGENT FEBRIFUGAL FRUIT PULP IS USED FOR DYSENTERY AND KIDNEY DISEASE. THE REDDISH
PASTE IS APPLIED AS AN UNGUENT TO BURNS. CONSIDERED A COSMETIC, DYE, FOOD, HAIR DRESSING, MEDICINE,
ORNAMENTAL TREE, AND VITAMIN SOURCE. IN INDIA, WHERE THE USEFUL ORNAMENTAL WEED TREE HAS ESTABLISHED
ITSELF, AS IT HAS PANTROPICALLY, LEAVES ARE USED FOR JAUNDICE AND SNAKEBITE, THE ROOT BARK FOR FEVERS,
INCLUDING MALARIA. FRUITS ARE CONSIDERED ASTRINGENT AND LAXATIVE. THE PLANT IS ALSO RECOMMENDED
FOR GONORRHEA (MPI). THE HOT WATER EXTRACTS POTENTLY INHIBIT LENS ALDOSE REDUCTASE, PERHAPS DUE TO
ISOSCUTELLAREIN (X1814628).
HERE’S WHAT RODOLFO VASQUEZ AND I HAD TO SAY ABOUT THE PLANT A FEW YEARS BACK IN OUR AMAZONIAN
ETHNOBOTANICAL DICTIONARY. THE PLANT IS THRIVING IN OUR RENUPERU ETHNOBOTANICAL GARDEN THERE.
“BIXA ORELLANA” L. BIXACEAE. ACHOTE, ACHIOTE AMARILLO. CULTIVATED. NATIVES MAINLY USE IT FOR FOOD
COLORING AND TO DECORATE THEIR BODIES. THERE ARE EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF BIXIN. IN
PIURA, THE SHOOT DECOCTION IS CONSIDERED ANTIDYSENTERIC, ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, ANTIVENEREAL, APHRODISIAC, AND ASTRINGENT (GEO). THE FOLIAGE IS USED TO TREAT SKIN PROBLEMS AND HEPATITIS; ALSO USED AS
APHRODISIAC, ANTIDYSENTERIC, AND ANTIPYRETIC. CONSIDERED GOOD FOR THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND FOR
TREATMENT OF LIVER DISEASE. VERY EFFECTIVE AS A GARGLE FOR TONSILITIS (DAV). CHINATECAS POULTICE LEAVES
ON CUTS TO AVOID SCARS (DAV). PEOPLE FROM COJEDES USE THE FLOWER INFUSION AS PURGE AND TO AVOID
PHLEGM IN NEWBORN BABIES. KAYAPO MASSAGE STOMACHS OF WOMEN IN LABOR WITH THE LEAVES. WAUNANA
USE TO DYE DEMIJOHNS AND BASKETS. BARK YIELDS A GUM SIMILAR TO GUM ARABIC. FIBER USED AS CORDAGE.
KAYAPO USE TO TINT TO THE BODY (DAV). DYE SAID TO BE AN ANTIDOTE FOR HCN (SAR). SEEDS BELIEVED
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TO BE EXPECTORANT, THE ROOTS DIGESTIVE (SAR) AND ANTITUSSIVE (BDS). AROUND EXPLORAMA, FRESH LEAF
STALKS, DEVOID OF BLADES, ARE INSERTED INTO A GLASS OF WATER; THE MUCILAGE THAT FORMS IS APPLIED IN
CONJUNCTIVITIS (DAV). IT IS RECOMMENDED IN THE AMAZON FOR PINK-EYE (CONJUNCTIVITIS), WHICH MORE
OFTEN THAN NOT IN LATIN AMERICA IS VIRAL. MUSTALISH NOTES, PERHAPS THANKFULLY, THAT SOME SHAMANS
“EXTRACT THE VASCULAR FLUIDS FROM YOUNG STEMS AS A TREATMENT FOR CONJUNCTIVITIS AND TO RELIEVE THE
DISCOMFORT OF CORNEAL ABRASIONS” (MUSTALISH AND BAXTER, 2001). YES, I SAW OUR SHAMAN ANTONIO
MONTERO PISCO TREATING MUSTALISH SUCCESSFULLY FOR CORNEAL ABRASIONS. ANNATTO DYE IS A POTENTIAL RARE
CAUSE OF ANAPHYLAXIS, CAUSING ANGIODEMA, HYPOTENSION, AND URTICARIA (X1994783, DAD).
NOTE THAT NOWHERE DO WE MENTION PROSTATE. BUT BY JANUARY 2001, PERUVIANS WERE MANUFACTURING
PROCESSED SUPPLEMENTS, DOMINATED BY BIXA FOR BPH. THE LABEL ON ONE PRODUCT READ “CONTIENE
ACHIOTE ‘C,’ UÑA DE GATO, CHANCA PIEDRAS, ETC.” IN SPANISH, IT ALSO SAYS, “KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF
CHILDREN” AND “STORE IN A COOL DRY PLACE.” THERE’S EVEN AN EXPIRATION DATE. BUT IT DOESN’T SPECIFICALLY
TELL YOU THAT YOU ARE TAKING IT FOR PROSTATE HEALTH (“PROSTASANA;” THE TITLE ALONE TELLS YOU), NOR HOW
MUCH TO TAKE FOR YOUR PROSTATE. THE FIRST THREE HERBS MENTIONED ARE COMMON AROUND MY PERUVIAN
HAUNTS, ANNATTO, BIXA ORELLANA; CAT’S CLAW, UNCARIA SPP.; STONEBREAKER, PHYLLANTHUS NIRURI. NONE OF
MY EARLY LITERATURE SUGGESTED ACHIOTE FOR THE PROSTATE. BUT IT DOES CONTAIN LYCOPENE AND SEVERAL
CAROTENOID DERIVATIVES OF LYCOPENE.
SOME QUESTIONS REGARDING THE SAFETY OF INGESTING THE TEA FOR DIABETES MELLITUS HAVE BEEN RAISED,
HAVING FOUND IN FACT A HYPERGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY FOR TRANS-BIXIN. PERHAPS ANNATTO SHOULD BE COUNTERINDICATED FOR DIABETICS. THE TOXICITY IS “LOW GRADE,” ESPECIALLY IN WELL NOURISHED EXPERIMENTAL
ANIMALS. TOXICITY COMMENCES IN DOGS GIVEN 60 MG/KG TRANS-BIXIN.
INDICATIONS (ANNATTO) — ACNE (F; 60P); ALOPECIA (F; DAD); ASTHMA (F; JFM); BACTERIA (1; 60P;
FNF; TRA); BITE (F; MPI); BLEEDING (1; WO2); BLISTER (F; WO2); BURN (F; DAD; TRA; WO2);
CANCER (F; JLH); CANCER, MOUTH (F; BOW; DAD); CHILDBIRTH (F; BOW; DAV; IED);COLIC (F; BOW);
CONDYLOMATA (F; JLH); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (1; DAV; FNF); DERMATOSIS (F; JFM); DIABETES (1; FNF;
JFM; WO2); DIARRHEA (F; IED; JFM); DYSENTERY (F; 60P; DEP; JFM; WO2); DYSPNEA (F; JFM);
EPILEPSY (F; WO2); ERUPTION (F; JFM); FEVER (F; 60P; JFM; MPI; WO2); FLU (F; JFM); GASTROSIS
(F; DAV); GLAUCOMA (1; X1814628); GONORRHEA (1; JFM; MPI; TRA); HEADACHE (F; JFM); HEMORRHOID (F; JFM); HEPATOSIS (F; DAV; JFM); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; 60P; WO2); HIGH BLOOD SUGAR
(1; 60P); INFECTION (1; FNF; WO2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); JAUNDICE (F; JFM; WO2); LEPROSY (F;
JFM; WO2); MALARIA (F; MPI; WO2); MEASLES (F; JFM); NAUSEA (F; JFM); NEPHROSIS (F; DAD;
DEP); PAIN (F; DAD); PARASITE (1; DAD); PLEURISY (F; JFM); PROSTATOSIS (1; FNF); PULMONOSIS (F;
IED); RESPIROSIS (F; IED); SALMONELLA (1; TRA); SCAR (F; WO2); SNAKEBITE (F; MPI); SORE (F; JLH;
WO2); SORE THROAT (F; JFM; WO2); STOMACHACHE (F; JFM); STOMATOSIS (F; DAD; JFM); TONSILOSIS
(F; DAV); TUMOR (F; JLH); UTEROSIS (F; JFM); VD (F; DAV; JFM; MPI); VOMITING (F; JFM); WORM
(F; DAD); WOUND (F; JFM); YEAST (1; FNF; TRA).
ANNATTO FOR CONJUCTIVOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; LIGNIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ELLAGIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN-7-GLUCOSIDE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LUTEOLIN-7-GLUCOSIDE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
ANNATTO FOR DIABETES:
• ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: ELLAGIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN-7-GLUCOSIDE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: BIXIN; CROCETIN; CYANIDIN; ELLAGIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LUTEIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: ELLAGIC-ACID
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIRADICULAR: LUTEIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: CROCETIN; LIGNIN
• HYPOGLYCEMIC: SALICYCLIC-ACID
• THERMOGENIC: SALICYLIC-ACID
OTHER USES (ANNATTO) — FIRST IMPORTED INTO EUROPE IN THE 16TH CENTURY, ANNATTO WAS FIRST CULTIVATED
IN INDIA IN 1787. ANNATTO IS CULTIVATED FOR ITS SEEDS, THE BRIGHT CRIMSON SEED COATS OF WHICH YIELD
THE RED DYE BIXIN (80%) AND THE YELLOW DYE ORELLIN (20%). THIS IS ONE OF THE FEW FDA APPROVED
NATURAL COLORANTS. BIXIN IS USED TO IMPART COLOR TO CERTAIN FOODS (E.G., BUTTER, CHEESE, MARGARINE),
FOODSTUFFS, AND WAX POLISHES. MERCADENTE ET AL. (1997) REMIND US THAT ANNATTO IS SECOND IN IMPORTANCE
AMONG NATURAL COLORANTS. THE SEEDS OF ACHIOTE, ALIAS ROUCOU, ARE BRIEFLY STEEPED IN HOT OIL OR LARD,
WHICH IS THEN STRAINED, COOLED, AND USED AS COLORING AND FLAVORING FOR FISH, MEAT, POULTRY, RICE, AND
VEGETABLES (FAC). ALSO USED TO TINT BAKED GOODS, DRINKS, FATS, ICE-CREAM, SALAD DRESSING, SNACKS, AND
YOGHURTS. AS A COLORANT, IT MAY STILL HAVE ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES. MARTINEZ-TOME ET AL. (2001) REPORTED
THAT AT 5% CONCENTRATION > ANNATTO > BHA > SWEET PAPRIKA > CUMIN > HOT PAPRIKA > SAFFRON > BHT
AT 100 ΜG/G AS AN ANTIOXIDANT. IN YUCATAN, THE WHOLE SEEDS ARE GROUND WITH VARIOUS SPICES INTO A
PASTE, GIVING A MORE PRONOUNCED COLOR AND FLAVOR. MEXICANS STAIN POULTRY AND SUCKLING PIGS WITH A
PASTE OF THE SEEDS GROUND WITH OTHER SPICES. WIDELY USED IN LATIN AMERICA TO COLOR RICE, SOUPS, AND
OTHERS, INCLUDING MEATS. AZTECS MIXED GROUND ANNATTO SEED TO A CHOCOLATE BEVERAGE. ANNATTO IS USED
AS BODY PAINT AND HAIR DRESSING BY AMERINDIANS, SERVING FOR LIPSTICK AND ROUGE. IN THE PHILIPPINES,
SEEDS ARE GROUND FOR A CONDIMENT. JAMAICANS USE ANNATTO, WITH CHILES AND ONIONS, WITH THEIR NATIONAL
DISH, SALT COD AND AKEE. SAUSAGES COLORED WITH ANNATTO DO NOT LOSE THEIR COLOR. ONE TSP POWDERED
SEED TO A CUP OF WATER CAN NICELY COLOR A DISH OF RICE (AAR). YES, THIS DIRT CHEAP COLORANT, ESPECIALLY
IN THE TROPICS WHERE BIXA IS ALMOST A WEED TREE, IS INCREDIBLY CHEAPER, AND PERHAPS HEALTHIER, THAN
THE WORLD’S MOST EXPENSIVE SPICE, SAFFRON. BOWN (2001) NOTES THAT ANNATTO IS USED TO STAIN MAGGOTS
RED TO MAKE THEM MORE APPEALING AS FISH BAIT. BIXIN HAS BEEN USED AS A TEXTILE DYE FOR COTTON AND
SILK. FOR PRINTING PURPOSES, THE DYE IS DISSOLVED IN CAUSTIC SODA AND DEVELOPED WITH ACID, ALUM, OR
STANNOUS CHLORIDE. BROWN SHOE POLISH IS MADE FROM THE SEEDS, AND FLOOR WAX IS MADE BY DISSOLVING
THE DYE IN KEROSENE. A FAIRLY GOOD FIBER MAY BE OBTAINED FROM THE BARK, WHICH ALSO CONTAINS SMALL
AMOUNTS OF DYE. A GUM SOMEWHAT SIMILAR TO GUM ARABIC CAN BE EXTRACTED FROM THE TRUNK. WOOD USED
FOR FIRESTICKS AND THE BARK FOR CORDAGE. ROOTS SAID TO IMPART THE TASTE AND COLOR OF SAFFRON TO MEATS.
IT IS SAID TO BE ONE OF THE FEW SHRUBS THAT CAN GROW THROUGH AND KILL THE DREADED LALANG GRASS. USED
AS A WIND BREAK IN COFFEE AND TEA PLANTATIONS. (AAR, BOW, DAD, FAC, WO2).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (ANNATTO) — SOIL SHOULD BE PREPARED IN THE SAME MANNER AS FOR COTTON. SEEDS,
PREVIOUSLY SOFTENED BY SOAKING IN WATER, ARE PLANTED IN HOLES OR FURROWS 2.5–3.5 M APART IN SHADED
NURSERIES. SEEDS GERMINATE IN 8–10 DAYS. AS THE YOUNG PLANTS DEVELOP, THEY SHOULD BE PROTECTED
BY ARTIFICIAL SHADE OR INTERCROPS, WITH INCREASED LIGHT AS THEY GET OLDER. WHEN 15–25 INCHES HIGH,
THEY ARE READY FOR OUTPLANTING, SPACED FOR FINAL DISTRIBUTION AT 4.5–6 M APART. PLANTINGS FARE WELL IF
IN 60 CM CUBED PLOTS FILLED WITH WELL AGED FARM MANURE. WATER WELL AT PLANTING. CAN BE INTERCROPPED
WITH CASSAVA, CORN, AND MALANGA. AFTER 3 MONTHS, PLANTATION SHOULD BE WEEDED AND SUPERFLUOUS
PLANTS REMOVED. EXCEPT FOR PERIODICAL WEEDING, THE PLANTATION NEEDS LITTLE ATTENTION. ANAI RECOMMENDS GROWING MEDICINAL OR CULINARY HERBS, LIKE LEMONGRASS, BETWEEN THE SHRUBS (DAD, WO2).
COLLECTION OF SEED MAY BEGIN AS EARLY AS 18 MONTHS, A FULL CROP EXPECTED 3–4 YEARS AFTER SOWING.
TREES REMAIN PRODUCTIVE FOR 10–15 YEARS. CAPSULES ARE GATHERED, USUALLY BY HAND, WHEN THEY ARE
REDDISH AND BEGINNING TO BREAK OPEN. IT IS WISE TO PRUNE BRANCHES RATHER VIGOROUSLY WHEN HARVESTING
THE CAPSULES; PRUNED PLANTS YIELD BETTER. CAPSULES ARE DRIED IN THE SHADE FOR ABOUT 10 DAYS THEN
EXPOSED TO THE SUN UNTIL ALL HAVE OPENED. CLUSTERS AND SEEDS ARE THEN PLACED IN A BAG AND BEATEN
WITH A STICK TO LOOSEN THE SEED. THUS, SEEDS ARE EASILY REMOVED FROM THE CAPSULE, AND LITTLE DYE IS
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
LOST. SEEDS ARE THEN SIFTED TO SEPARATE SEED FROM TRASH. SEED IS AGAIN SUN-DRIED 4–6 HOURS BEFORE
BAGGING. FOR HOME EXTRACTION OF DYE/SPICE, POURING HOT WATER OVER THE PULP AND SEEDS TO MACERATE
AND SEPARATE THEM BY POUNDING WITH A WOODEN PESTLE. REMOVE SEEDS, LETTING THE PULP SETTLE, POURING
OFF EXCESS WATER; DRY PULP GRADUALLY IN THE SHADE. IN INDIA, THE PLANT PRODUCES THROUGHOUT THE YEAR,
WITH TWO MAIN CROPS IN MARCH AND SEPTEMBER. IN HAWAII, HARVESTS ARE IN MAY, SEPTEMBER, AND THE
BEST YIELDS ARE OBTAINED IN JANUARY, WITH ABOUT 44 KG/HA FOR ROUND POD VARIETY, AND 939 KG/HA FOR
POINTED-POD VARIETY. A TREE SHOULD YIELD 4.5–5 KG DRIED SEED PER YEAR. AN AVERAGE YIELD OF 500–2000
KG/HA PER YEAR IS SATISFACTORY, BUT UP TO 4500 KG/HA HAVE BEEN REPORTED IN FIVE-YEAR OLD FIELDS; 100
KG OF SEED YIELD ABOUT 5–6 KG OF MATERIAL WHICH CONTAINS 12–30% BIXIN.
CHEMISTRY (ANNATTO) — MERCADENTE ET AL. (1997) NOTE THAT, OF THE 500–600 KNOWN CAROTENOIDS,
MANY HAVE NOT YET PROVEN TO HAVE PRO-VITAMIN-A ACTIVITY, BUT MANY HAVE OTHER USEFUL HEALTH-GIVING
PROPERTIES. THEY FOUND FIVE APOCAROTENOIDS, ALL NEW TO BIXA AND THREE NEW TO SCIENCE, AND RECAPITULATED
OTHERS, E.G., BIXIN (ESTIMATED AT >80% OF CAROTENOIDS IN THE SEED COAT). CAROTENOIDS ARE FREQUENTLY
ADDED TO FOODS AS COLORANTS, PRESUMED HEALTH-GIVING AS WELL. THE FOLLOWING ARE PERMITTED BY THE
EUROPEAN UNION: ANNATTO, BETA-APO-8’-CAROTENAL, BETA-APO-8’-CAROTENIC ETHYL ESTER, BIXIN, CANTHAXANTHIN, CAPSANTHIN, CAPSORUBIN, BETA-CAROTENE, CAROTENE MIXES, LUTEIN, LYCOPEIN, NORBIXIN, PAPRIKA EXTRACT
(HAILA ET AL., 1996). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ANNATTO. FOR A COMPLETE
LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND
DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ARGININE — SEE ALSO ALLIUM SATIVUM.
BIXIN — ADI = 1.25 MG/KG; ANTIOXIDANT 30–60 ΜG/G; COLORANT; DYE.
HISTIDINE — ADI = 15 G/DAY/ORL; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTINEPHROTIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIULCER; ANTIUREMIC; ESSENTIAL; OXIDANT.
BOSWELLIA SACRA FLUECK. (BURSERACEAE)
FRANKINCENSE, OLIBANUM TREE
SYNONYM — BOSWELLIA CARTERI BIRDW.
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MEDICINAL USES (FRANKINCENSE) — FOR OVER A CENTURY, THE TRUE IDENTITY OF FRANKINCENSE HAS BEEN
ILLUSIVE. HERE’S A QUOTE FROM THE DICTIONARY OF THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF INDIA, CERCA 1889. “IT IS
PROBABLE THAT SEVERAL SPECIES YIELD (FRANKINCENSE) OF WHICH B. CARTERII IS PERHAPS ONE OF THE MOST
IMPORTANT.... THE ARABS, AS EARLY AS THE TENTH CENTURY, CARRIED OLIBANUM TO INDIA, AND THE INDIAN NAMES
FOR IT HAVE, THROUGH THE LAPSE OF TIME, BECOME ALMOST HOPELESSLY MIXED UP WITH THOSE GIVEN TO THE
INDIAN SPECIES.... MANY CENTURIES BEFORE CHRIST, THE DRUG WAS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF
TRADE WHICH THE PHOENICIANS AND EGYPTIANS CARRIED ON WITH ARABIA (DEP). BUT ALL SEEM TO AGREE THAT
THE FRANKINCENSE OR OLIBANUM, WHICHEVER SPECIES THEY BE, SEEMS TO SHARE MANY AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL
PRINCIPLES WITH PITCHES AND TURPENTINES EMANATING FROM THE FIRS AND PINES AND THEIR RELATIVES, SOME OF
WHICH WERE APPROVED BY GERMANY’S COMMISSION E. AND OVER 100 YEARS AGO, IN INDIA, OLIBANUM WAS
RECOMMENDED IN CHRONIC LUNG AILMENTS LIKE BRONCHORRHEA AND LARYNGITIS, BOTH AS AN INTERNAL CONCOCTION,
AND AS AN INHALANT. AND TEN CENTURIES AGO, AVICENNIA RECOMMENDED FRANKINCENSE FOR DYSENTERY, FEVER,
TUMORS, ULCERS, AND VOMITING (GMH). OINTMENTS OF OLIBANUM WERE SUGGESTED FOR BOILS, CARBUNCLES,
AND SORES. THE RESIN IS USED TO STIMULATE DIGESTION, TO TREAT MASTITIS, STRENGTHEN THE TEETH, AND MIXED
INTO HAIR PRODUCTS. SOOT COLLECTED FROM BURNING THE RESIN IS USED AS KOHL FOR SOOTHING SORE EYES. OTHER
AUTHORS SUGGEST IT IS MORE COSMETIC THAN MEDICINE. PREGNANT YEMENIS CHEW THE GUM; ALSO CHEWED FOR
EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. ARABIANS OFTEN CHEW IT AS A MASTICATORY, BELIEVED TO IMPROVE
THE MEMORY, OR ADD IT TO COFFEE. THE RESIN IS PRESUMED TO BE DIURETIC AND LAXATIVE. THIERET (1996) ADDS
THAT, IN GRAECO-ROMAN MEDICINE, FRANKINCENSE WAS PRESCRIBED FOR ABSCESSES, BRUISES, CHEST ACHE,
HEMORRHAGE, HEMORRHOIDS, PARALYSIS, AND ULCERS. IN NORTHERN AFRICA, IT IS USED FOR BACK PROBLEMS, CHEST
CONGESTION, CHRONIC COUGHS, POLIOMYELITIS, AND VENEREAL AILMENTS (THIERET, 1996).
AS A NATURAL COX-2 INHIBITOR, BOSWELLIC-ACID MAY ALLEVIATE ARTHRITIS, GOUT, INFLAMMATION, AND
RHEUMATISM, AND POSSIBLY PREVENT ALZHEIMER’S AND CANCER (NEWMARK AND SCHULICK, 2000). AND I
AM SPECIFICALLY WATCHING THE PRESS FOR COX-2-INHIBITORS AND COLON CANCER. BOIK (2001) SUGGEST
BOSWELLIC-ACID, IF NOT FRANKINCENSE, AS A CANCER PREVENTIVE. SEVEN IN VITRO STUDIES SUGGEST IT INHIBITS
PROLIFERATION OR INDUCES DIFFERENTIATION IN LEUKEMIA AND CNS-CANCER CELL LINES, USUALLY AT LEVELS OF
2–40 ΜM. TWO HUMAN STUDIES SUGGEST THAT FRANKINCENSE EXTRACTS CAN ALLEVIATE BRAIN CANCER PATHOLOGIES, PERHAPS ALSO REDUCING BRAIN EDEMA. ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF BOSWELLIC ARE ANTIINFLAMMATORY IN
RATS AT ORAL DOSES OF 50 MG/KG, WITH ANTIARTHRITIC MITIGATION (INCLUDING A REDUCTION IN COLLAGEN
DEGRADATION) AT 100 MG/KG. THE WHOLE EXTRACT WAS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN PURE BOSWELLIC ACID, SUGGESTING THAT A FRANKINCENSE LIQUEUR MIGHT BE BETTER THAN A SILVER BULLET BOSWELLIC-ACID. BOSWELLIC
ACID INDUCED APOPTOSIS IN LEUKEMIA CELLS (IC50 = 30 ΜM), INDUCED DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMAN LEUKEMIA
CELLS AT 11–22 ΜM, AND INHIBITED PROLIFERATION ON FOUR HUMAN BRAIN CANCER CELL LINES (IC50 = 30 TO
40 ΜM), OF 11 LINES OF MENINGIOMAS (IC50 = 2–8 ΜM), OF LEUKEMIA CELLS (IC72 = 4 ΜM). BOIK
(AND/OR MY DATABASE) LISTS SEVERAL MECHANISMS BY WHICH BOSWELLIC-ACID MIGHT PREVENT CANCER:
ANTIANGIOGENIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTILEUKEMIC, ANTIMENINGIOMIC, ANTIMETASTATIC, ANTIPROLIFERANT,
APOPTOTIC, COX-2-INHIBITOR, CYTOTOXIC, BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR, HYALURONIDASE-INHIBITOR
(10–70 ΜM), AND TOPOISOMERASE-INHIBITOR. SO WE HAVE ONE PHYTOCHEMICAL IN THE BIBLICAL FRANKINCENSE WITH MORE THAN A DOZEN DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES THAT COULD REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER. BOIK
(2001) CALCULATES TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 340–2400 MG/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTITUMOR
STUDIES), 730–3200 MG/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY STUDIES), 3600–5400 MG/DAY
USED IN HUMAN ANTICANCER STUDIES, SUGGESTING A TARGET DOSE OF 1800 MG/DAY BOSWELLIC-ACID. HE
SUGGESTS THAT FIFTEENFOLD SYNERGIES WITH OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS MAY REDUCE THAT MINIMUM ANTITUMOR
DOSE TO 120 MG BOSWELLIC-ACID/DAY. “SINCE THE TARGET DOSE IS ACHIEVABLE, SYNERGETIC INTERVENTIONS
MAY NOT BE REQUIRED FOR BOSWELLIC ACID TO PRODUCE AN ANTICANCER EFFECT IN HUMANS. STILL, IT MAY
GREATLY BENEFIT FROM SYNERGISTIC INTERACTIONS AND IS BEST TESTED IN COMBINATIONS” (BOIK, 2001).
INDICATIONS (FRANKINCENSE) — ABSCESS (F; HAD); ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); ANXIETY (F;
BOW); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; FNF); ASTHMA (F; HHB); BACKACHE (F; HAD); BILHARZIA (F; BIB);
BLEEDING (F; HAD); BOIL (F; DEP); BRONCHOSIS (F; BIB; DEP); BRUISE (F; HAD); CALLUS (F; BIB);
CANCER (1; COX; FNF; JLH); CANCER, ANUS (1; BIB; COX); CANCER, BREAST (1; BIB; COX); CANCER,
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EYE (1; BIB; COX); CANCER, PENIS (1; BIB; COX); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; BIB; COX); CANCER, TEAT
(1; BIB; COX); CANCER, TESTICLE (1; BIB; COX); CARBUNCLE (F; DEP; JLH); COLITIS (1; FNF); CORN
(F; JLH); COUGH (F; HAD); CRAMP (1; FNF); CROHN’S DISEASE (1; FNF); DERMATOSIS (F; GMH);
DYSENTERY (F; BIB); DYSMENORRHEA (F; BOW); DYSPEPSIA (F; HAD); EDEMA (1; FNF); FEVER (F;
BIB); GINGIVOSIS (F; BOW); GONORRHEA (F; BIB); HEMORRHOID (F; HAD); INFECTION (F; BOW);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); LARYNGOSIS (F; BIB; DEP); LEPROSY (F; BIB); LEUKEMIA (1; FNF);
MASTOSIS (F; JLH); MENINGIOMA (1; FNF); MYELOSIS (F; HAD); NEUROSIS (F; BIB; HAD); OPHTHALMIA (F; JLH); ORCHOSIS (F; JLH); PAIN (1; FNF; HHB); POLIO (F; HAD); POLYP (F; JLH);
PROCTOSIS (F; JLH); PSYCHOSIS (F; HAD); RESPIROSIS (F; PH2); RHEUMATISM (1; BIB; FNF); SORE
(F; DEP); SPERMATORRHEA (F; BIB); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); STOMACHACHE (F; BIB); STOMATOSIS (F;
BOW); SWELLING (1; BIB; FNF); SYPHILIS (F; BIB); TUMOR (1; FNF); ULCER (F; HAD); UROGENITOSIS
(F; BIB); UTEROSIS (F; HHB); UTI (F; BOW); VAGINOSIS (F; BOW); VD (F; BIB); VOMITING (F;
HAD); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WOUND (F; PH2).
FRANKINCENSE FOR ALZHEIMER’S:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-TERPINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE
• ACHE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE
• ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE: ALPHA-TERPINENE; CARVONE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; LIMONENE; PCYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID;
ALPHA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ALPHABOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: ALPHA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE
• CNS-STIMULANT: BORNEOL; CARVONE
FRANKINCENSE FOR CANCER:
• ANTIADENOMIC: FARNESOL
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AROMADENDRENE; CARVONE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
MUCILAGE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID;
ALPHA-BOSWELLIC ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE
• ANTILEUKEMIC: ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; FARNESOL
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ALPHABOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID
• ANTIMELANOMIC: FARNESOL
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: ANISALDEHYDE; LIMONENE; MYRCENE
• ANTIOXIDANT: ALPHA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-HUMULENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; LIMONENE
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; DIPENTENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• APOPTOTIC: FARNESOL
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: DELTA-CADINENE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE
• P450-INDUCER: DELTA-CADINENE
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FRANKINCENSE FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIEDEMIC: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE;
CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ACETYL-11-KETO-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ACETYL-BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID;
ALPHA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTISPASMODIC: BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; FARNESOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• MYORELAXANT: BORNEOL
OTHER USES (FRANKINCENSE) — FRANKINCENSE CAME TO THE HOLY LAND VIA THE FAMOUS SPICE ROUTE
ACROSS SOUTHERN ARABIA AND SOME OF THE LITTORAL STATIONS OF EAST AFRICA, THE SAME CARAVAN HIGHWAY
USED ALSO FOR GOODS FROM INDIA AND POINTS FARTHER EAST (ZOHARY, 1982). TODAY, THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
MAY BE A MAJOR CONSUMER, OFTEN USING FRANKINCENSE IN CEREMONIAL INCENSES. BOTANICAL HISTORIAN
JOHN W. THIERET (1996) SEEMS TO AGREE WITH ZOHARY, NOTING THAT A MAIN SOURCE OF FRANKINCENSE
IS BOSWELLIA SACRA. “HERODOTUS (BORN 484 B.C.) WROTE THAT THE FRANKINCENSE TREES WERE GUARDED
BY VAST NUMBERS OF SMALL WINGED SERPENTS;” HE WAS WRONG. MOST FRANKINCENSE COMES FROM
SOMALIA (FOLLOWING BANANAS AND CATTLE AS LEADING EXPORT), WHERE IT PROVIDES WORK FOR SOME 10,000
SOMALI FAMILIES. HERODOTUS ALSO SAID THAT ARABS EVERY YEAR BROUGHT TO DARIUS 1000 TALENTS OF
FRANKINCENSE AS TRIBUTE. MODERN PARSIS IN WESTERN INDIA STILL MAINTAIN THE SAME INCENSE RITUAL
(GMH). SOME IS GATHERED IN ARABIA. MOST GOES TO SAUDI ARABIA, YEMEN, AND EGYPT, THE MAJOR
MARKETS. EARLY BOTANIST THEOPHRASTUS, SOME THREE CENTURIES BEFORE CHRIST, SAID THAT MOST FRANKINCENSE CAME FROM SABA (SOUTHWESTERN ARABIA, ONCE RULED BY THE FAMED QUEEN SHEBA). THAT
ANCIENT COUNTRY GOT RICH IN THE INCENSE TRADE. CIRCA 2335 B.P., ALEXANDER THE GREAT’S ARMY CAPTURED
GAZA, PLUNDERING ITS FRANKINCENSE AND SENDING IT TO GREECE. TONS OF INCENSE WERE BURIED IN THE
TEMPLES OF BABYLON AND NINEVEH. AND IN KING TUT’S TOMB, 3000 YEAR OLD BALLS OF FRANKINCENSE
WERE RECOVERED. ONE ROMAN CHURCH FORMULA HAD 10 OZ OLIBANUM (FRANKINCENSE), 4 OZ BENZOIN,
AND 1 OZ STORAX. “IN TODAY’S CHURCHES, FRANKINCENSE IS AN INGREDIENT IN THE INCENSE THAT SOMETIMES
NEARLY SUFFOCATES THE FAITHFUL…. BECAUSE FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH NO LONGER ENJOY THE ESTEEM
THAT THEY DID TWO MILLENNIA AGO, I WONDER WHAT THE WISE MEN WOULD BRING TODAY. PERHAPS GOLD,
DATES, AND OIL” (THIERET, 1996). IMPORT STATISTICS ARE HARD TO COME BY. THIERET (1996) SUGGESTS
TOTAL YEARLY PRODUCTION OF MYRRH IS PERHAPS 500 TONS, FRANKINCENSE 1000 TONS. RECENT U.S. IMPORTS
RUN 5–20 TONS. THE UNITED KINGDOM IMPORTS CA. 30 TONS FRANKINCENSE EACH YEAR, ONE PERFUME
MANUFACTURER ALONE CONSUMING 5 TONS ANNUALLY (THIERET, 1996).
THE AROMATIC RESIN IS CHEWED OR MANUFACTURED INTO AN EO USED IN BAKED GOODS, CANDIES, GELATINS,
ICE CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND SOFT DRINKS (FAC). FLOWERS AND SEED OF THE INDIAN VARIETY ARE CONSUMED
AS FOODS. LEAVES YIELD AN EO. THE ROSIN IS USED IN MAKING BALSAM SUBSTITUTES, INKS, LACQUERS, PAINTS,
AND VARNISHES. THE VOLATILE OILS FROM THE RESIN ARE SUITABLE FOR THE SOAP AND PERFUME INDUSTRY, PAINTS,
AND VARNISHES. THE RESIN IS, OF COURSE, OFTEN USED AS INCENSE. THE “KOHL” OR BLACK USED BY EGYPTIAN
WOMEN TO STAIN THEIR EYELIDS IS MADE OF CHARRED FRANKINCENSE, WITH OR WITHOUT OTHER ODORANTS ADDED.
IT IS ALSO MELTED TO MAKE A DEPILATORY AND MADE INTO A PASTE TO PERFUME THE HANDS. IN COLD SNAPS,
EGYPTIANS WARM THEIR ROOMS WITH A BRAZIER ON WHICH INCENSE IS BURNED.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (FRANKINCENSE) — NOT CULTIVATED, BUT HARVESTED FROM THE WILD. GHAZANFAR (1994)
NOTES THAT, IN SOUTHERN ARABIA, LUBAN TREES OCCUR IN WADIS EXTENDING TO THE COAST ON THE LOWER SLOPES
OF THE GULLIES AND RUNOFFS. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS PROPAGATION WITH SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS; GROW IN WELL-
B
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DRAINED TO DRY SOILS IN FULL SUN, WITH LIGHT PRUNING IN SPRING. THE GUM EXUDING FROM CUTS IS THE
MAJOR MEDICINAL INCENSE, BEING BURNED TO GIVE A PERFUMED SMOKE, USED TO IMPROVE THE AROMA OF
CLOTHING, HAIR, AND RESIDENCES. OF THE INDIAN OLIBANUM, WO2 REPORTS IT DEMANDS LIGHT, TOLERATES
FIRE, AND MAKES GREGARIOUS OPEN FORESTS, COPPICING READILY AND PRODUCING ROOT SUCKERS AS WELL. IT
REGENERATES NICELY FROM SEED AND ROOT-SUCKERS, AND CUTTINGS STRIKE WELL EVEN DURING DROUGHT. THIS
BEING THE ONLY NON-CONIFEROUS SOURCE OF “TURPENTINE” IN INDIA, IT CAN BE TAPPED SO AS NOT TO INJURE
THE TREE; TREES YIELD 0.9–2.5 KG GUM PER TREE. HEALTHY TREES, GIRTH 90 CM OR MORE (OBVIOUSLY MUCH
BIGGER THAN THE TRUE DESERT FRANKINCENSES), ARE TAPPED BY SHAVING OFF A THIN BAND OF BARK CA. 20 CM
BROAD, 30 CM HIGH, ABOUT 15 CM ABOVE THE SOIL LINE. THE CUT IS MADE ABOUT HALF THE THICKNESS OF
THE BARK. IN INDIA, TAPPING BEGINS IN NOVEMBER AND IS STOPPED BEFORE THE MONSOON. BOWN (2001)
SAYS GUM CAN BE COLLECTED ALL YEAR, THOUGH THE BEST IS THAT FROM THE DRIEST HOTTEST MONTHS IN THE
DRIEST HOTTEST AREAS. FOR MORE DETAILS, SEE WO2.
CHEMISTRY (FRANKINCENSE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN FRANKINCENSE.
FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BOSWELLIC-ACID — ANALGESIC 20–55 MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIARTHRITIC 100 MG/KG ORL RAT;
ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTICOMPLEMENT IC100 = 0.1 ΜM; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIEICOSANOID; ANTIHYALURONIDASE;
ANTIINFLAMMATORY 50 MG/KG ORL RAT, IC100 = 0.1 ΜM; ANTILEUKEMIC 11–30 ΜM, IC69 = 25 MG/KG
IPR MUS, IC82 = 50 MG/KG IPR MUS; ANTIMENINGIOMIC IC50 = 11–22 ΜM; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROLIFERANT
— 40 ΜM, IC69 = 25 MG/KG IPR MUS, IC82 = 50 MG/KG IPR MUS; ANTITUMOR (BRAIN) IC50 = 30–40
ΜM; ANTIVEGF; APOPTOTIC 30–40 ΜM; COX-2-INHIBITOR; DIFFERENTIATOR 11–22 ΜM; ELASTASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 15 ΜM; BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR 100 MG/KG; 5-HETE-INHIBITOR; 5-LIPOXYGENASEINHIBITOR IC50 = 1.5–33 ΜM; SEDATIVE 20–55 MG/KG IPR RAT; TOPOISOMERASE-INHIBITOR.
ALPHA-BOSWELLIC-ACID — ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTICROHN’S; ANTICOLITIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKOTRIENE; COX-2-INHIBITOR; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR.
BETA-BOSWELLIC-ACID — ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTICROHNS; ANTICOLITIC; ANTIEDEMIC 50–200 MG/KG; ANTIINFLAMMATORY 5 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE 5 ΜM; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR
5 ΜM.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
C
CAPPARIS SPINOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE)
CAPER, CAPERBUSH
SYNONYM — CAPPARIS RUPESTRIS SM.
MEDICINAL USES (CAPER) — THE CAPER CONTAINS SOME OF THE SAME ISOTHIOCYANATES FOUND IN THE
MUSTARD FAMILY AND MAY SERVE A SIMILAR ROLE MEDICINALLY. ROOT AND ROOT BARK OF THE BIBLICAL CAPER,
PREPARED VARIOUSLY (MALAGMAS, CATAPLASMS, DRUNK WITH WINE OR VINEGAR, ETC.), ARE FOLK REMEDIES FOR
INDURATIONS (OF THE BLADDER, KIDNEY, LIVER, SPLEEN, AND UTERUS), TUMORS IN GENERAL, AND WARTS (JLH).
THE ROOT BARK IS VIEWED AS ALTERATIVE, ANALGESIC, APERIENT, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, STIMULANT, TONIC, AND VERMIFUE, AND IS USED IN RHEUMATISM, SCURVY, ENLARGED
SPLEEN, SCLEROSIS (SPLEEN), TUBERCULAR GLANDS, AND TOOTHACHE. UNANI USE THE JUICE TO KILL WORMS; THEY
ALSO CONSIDER THE ROOT BARK APERIENT, ANALGESIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, AND VERMIFUGE, AND USE
IT IN ADENOPATHY, PARALYSIS, RHEUMATISM, SPLENOMEGALY, AND TOOTHACHE. BROKEN LEAVES ARE USED AS
A POULTICE IN GOUT. TENDER STEMS ARE USED FOR DYSENTERY. ACCORDING TO BIBLICAL SCHOLARS MOLDENKE
AND MOLDENKE (1952), THE CAPER IS A STIMULANT, EXCITING BOTH HUNGER AND THIRST AND THUS STRENGTHENING
THE APPETITE WHEN IT BECOMES A BIT SLUGGISH. BEDOUINS ARE SAID TO USE CAPER WITH TEUCRIUM PILOSUM
AS AN INHALANT FOR COLDS. BEDOUINS BOIL THE CHOPPED OR POWDERED LEAVES IN WATER AND INHALE THE
VAPORS FOR HEADACHE. FOR ARTHRITIC-LIKE PAINS OF THE BACK, JOINTS AND LIMBS, THEY BOIL THE GROUND
LEAVES AND POULTICE THEM, WRAPPED IN THIN CLOTH, TO THE ACHE, EVEN AS THEY SLEEP. BARREN WOMEN ARE
COVERED WITH A MIXTURE OF GROUND LEAVES OF CAPPARIS AND TAMARIX TO INHALE THE VAPORS AND SWEAT
TO CORRECT THEIR BARRENNESS. LEBANESE BOIL THE ROOT AND PLANT FOR DENGUE, MALARIA, AND MALTA FEVER.
LEBANESE REGARD THE ROOTS AS SPECIFIC FOR MALARIA OR SPLENOMEGALY FOLLOWING MALARIA. IRANIANS USE
IT FOR INTERMITTENT FEVER AND RHEUMATISM. ALGERIANS BOIL THE WHOLE PLANT IN OIL AS A PUERPERAL
HYDRAGOGUE. CRUSHED SEEDS HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED FOR DYSMENORRHEA, FEMALE STERILITY, GANGLIONS,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SCROFULA, AND ULCERS. THE CAPERS THEMSELVES HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED FOR ATHEROSCLEROSIS, CHILLS, OPHTHALMIA, AND SCIATICA, ESPECIALLY IN NORTH AFRICA. FRUITS, CONSIDERED ANTISCORBUTIC, ARE USED FOR COLDS,
DROPSY, AND SCIATICA (BIB). CAPERS ARE EATEN AS FOOD FARMACY, FOR DRY SKIN.
SHIRWAIKAR ET AL. (1996) FOUND ANTIHEPATOTOXIC ACTIVITY IN ALCOHOLIC, ETHER, ETHYL ACETATE, AND
PETROL EXTRACTS OF THE ROOT BARK OF THE CAPER, ALL OF WHICH REDUCED THE ELEVATED SERUM TRANSAMINASES.
THE VARIOUS EXTRACTS WERE ADMINISTERED ORALLY TO RATS UP TO 2000 MG/KG, WITH NO EVIDENT TOXICITY
OR MORTALITY (SHIRWAIKAR ET AL., 1996).
INDICATIONS (CAPER) — ADENOSIS (F; BIB; JLH); AGING (F; BIB); ARTHROSIS (F; BIB); ATHEROSCLEROSIS
(F; BIB); BLEEDING (F; BOW); CANCER (1; BIB; FNF); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
BLADDER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, GROIN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, HEAD
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, KIDNEY (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, NECK (1; FNF;
JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CATARACT (F; BIB); CHILL (F;
BIB); CIRRHOSIS (F; WO2); COLD (F; BIB); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; BOW); COUGH (F; BOW); CRAMP (1;
FNF); CYSTOSIS (F; JLF); DENGUE (F; BIB); DIARRHEA (F; BOW); DROPSY (F; BIB); DYSENTERY (F; BIB);
DYSMENORRHEA (F; BIB); ENTEROSIS (F; BOW); FRACTURE (F; BIB); GASTROSIS (F; BOW); GOUT (F; SKJ;
WO2); HEADACHE (F; BIB); HEPATOSIS (1; FNF; JLH; WO2); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (F; BOW);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); INFERTILITY (F; BIB); MALARIA (F; BIB); MALTA FEVER (F; BIB); NEPHROSIS (F;
JLH; WO2); OPHTHALMIA (F; BIB); OTOSIS (F; BIB); PAIN (F; BIB); PARALYSIS (F; HAD); RHEUMATISM
(F; WO2); SCLEROSIS (F; BIB); SCIATICA (F; BIB); SCURVY (1; WO2); SCROFULA (F; BIB); SNAKEBITE (F;
BIB); SPLENOMEGALY (F; BIB); SPLENOSIS (F; BIB; WO2); TOOTHACHE (F; BIB); TUBERCULOSIS (1; BIB;
WO2); TUMOR (F; BIB); ULCER (F; BIB); UTEROSIS (F; JLH); WART (F; BIB; JLH).
CAPER FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: COUMARIN; QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIAGING: VITAMIN-E
• ANTIANDROGENIC: COUMARIN
• ANTICANCER: COUMARIN; MUCILAGE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SINIGRIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: GLUCURONIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: COUMARIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTILEUKEMIC: BETA-SITOSTEROL-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: COUMARIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMETASTATIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: COUMARIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIOXIDANT: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTITUMOR: BETA-SITOSTEROL-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; COUMARIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIVIRAL: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• APOPTOTIC: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: COUMARIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYTOTOXIC: QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: COUMARIN; VITAMIN-E
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: COUMARIN
• LYMPHOKINETIC: COUMARIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• SUNSCREEN: RUTIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
CAPER FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEDEMIC: COUMARIN; RUTIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: GLUCURONIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIHERPETIC: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: COUMARIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIRADICULAR: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• ANTIVARICOSE: RUTIN
• ANTIVIRAL: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• DETOXICANT: GLUCURONIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-E
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: COUMARIN; VITAMIN-E
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITAMIN-E
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: COUMARIN; SINIGRIN
OTHER USES (CAPER) — THE YOUNG PICKLED BUDS OF THE CAPER GIVE THE BIBLICAL “DESIRE” OR RELISH TO
FOOD; “…FEARS SHALL BE IN THE WAY, AND THE ALMOND TREE SHALL FLOURISH, AND THE GRASSHOPPER SHALL BE A
BURDEN, AND DESIRE SHALL FAIL…BECAUSE MAN GOETH TO HIS LONG HOME…” (ECCLESIASTES 12). TODAY, IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS, CAPERS ARE GATHERED AND STEEPED IN VINEGAR FOR AN APPETIZER. CAPERS ARE UNUSUAL
IN THAT THEY ARE THE FLOWER BUDS USED AS THE CONDIMENT IN COOKING. THEY ARE USED TO FLAVOR CANAPES,
GRAVIES, SALADS, AND SAUCES, AFTER BEING COOKED AND PICKLED. RAW CAPERS ARE ALL BUT UNPALATABLE AND
MUCH IMPROVED IN THE PICKLING PROCESS. BAY LEAVES, BLACK PEPPER, AND/OR TARRAGON ARE GOOD IN THE
PICKLING VINEGAR (TAD). SOME FAVOR CAPERS PICKLED IN SEA SALT. SOME FRENCH SAUCES GRACED WITH CAPERS
INCLUDE RAVIGOTE, REMOULADE, TARTARE, AND SOME VINAIGRETTES (TAD). RINZLER (1990) NOTES THEY ARE
PARTICULARLY GOOD IN A SOUR CREAM SAUCE (RIN). FOR PICKLING, ONE KILO OF BUDS IS STEEPED IN ONE KILO OF
BRINE VINEGAR FOR A MONTH. CAPERS CAN BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ORIENTAL FERMENTED BLACK BEANS (TOUSHI). SPROUTS
ARE SOMETIMES EATEN LIKE ASPARAGUS, AS WELL AS THE BUDS AND SHOOTS. IN CALIFORNIA, WHERE THEY PRUNE
THE SHRUBS BACK TO THE GROUND, THE NEW SHOOTS ARE EATEN AS A DELICACY IN SPRING. PICKLED FRUITS ARE EATEN
IN THE PUNJAB AND ARABIA, AS WELL AS IN CYPRUS, WHERE BRANCH TIPS ARE ALSO PICKLED. THEY ARE ALSO GROWN
FOR THE LARGE ORNAMENTAL WHITE AND PURPLE FLOWERS. THE TIMBER IS SAID TO RESIST TERMITES (BIB, FAC, RIN).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CULTIVATION (CAPER) — HARDY ONLY TO ZONE 9, CAPERS ARE BEST GROWN IN FULL SUN, WELL-DRAINED
SANDY SOILS OF PH 6.3–8.3. PLANTS WILL FREEZE BACK AT LEAST TO THE GROUND AT 32°F (0°C). TREATED
SEED SOWN IN SANDY SOIL UNDER GLASS IN THE SPRING; PLANTS THEN TRANSPLANTED OUTDOORS DURING WARM,
SETTLED WEATHER. SEEDS SHOULD FIRST BE TREATED WITH A DILUTE SULFURIC ACID OR PERMANGANATE. MAY BE
PROPAGATED ALSO FROM CUTTINGS OF SHORT SHOOTS PLANTED IN A SANDY SOIL IN FRAMES IN A GLASSHOUSE. IN
THE NORTH, IT IS GROWN BY TRAINING THE LONG SLENDER SHOOTS ON A TRELLIS IN A GLASSHOUSE, OR BY TREATING
THE PLANT AS A TENDER ANNUAL AND PLANTING IT OUTDOORS WHEN WEATHER PERMITS. THE SHRUB PRODUCES A
PROFUSION OF FLOWERS IN THE SUMMER AND IS OFTEN GROWN AS AN ORNAMENTAL. IN THE SOUTH, IT CAN BE
GROWN OUTDOORS. IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, WHERE HARDY, ROOTED CUTTINGS ARE OUTPLANTED IN FEBRUARYMARCH, SPACED 16 × 16 FEET (5 × 5 M). DURING THE NEXT TWO YEARS, THEY MAY REQUIRE TWO OR THREE
IRRIGATIONS. EACH PLANT MIGHT BE FERTILIZED WITH 1
/2 LB (1
/4–1
/5 KG) 16–16–16 FERTILIZER. PLANTS ARE
PRUNED BACK TO THE GROUND EACH YEAR. FLOWER BUDS ARE HARVESTED FROM MAY TO AUGUST. IN SPAIN,
INTERCROPPING WITH CEREALS IS RECOMMENDED AND SAID TO INCREASE THE YIELD OF CAPERS. HARVEST
MANUALLY THE FLOWER BUDS BEFORE THEY SHOW ANY COLOR. A THREE-YEAR-OLD BUSH CAN YIELD MORE THAN
2 LB OF BUDS PER YEAR, FOUR-YEAR-OLDS AND OLDER >20 POUNDS/YEAR (CFR, TAD).
CHEMISTRY (CAPER) — SMALL WONDER THE PLANT HAS SO MUCH ANTICANCER FOLKLORE, CONTAINING SUCH
ANTITUMOR COMPOUNDS AS BETA-SITOSTEROL, BETA-SITOSTEROL-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE, CITRIC-ACID, COUMARIN,
QUERCETIN, AND RUTIN, AS WELL AS INDOLE GLUCOSINOLATES AND ISOTHIOCYANATES. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE
MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CAPER. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE
USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BETA-SITOSTEROL — ADI = 9–30 G/DAY/MAN; ANDROGENIC; ANORECTIC; ANTIADENOMIC; ANTIANDROGENIC;
ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIEDEMIC IC54 = 320 MG/KG ORL; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFERTILITY; ANTIGONADOTROPIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTILYMPHOMIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC 250
ΜG/ML; ANTIOPHIDIC 2.3 MG MUS; ANTIPROGESTATIONAL; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN (30 MG/DAY/12 WK); ANTIPROSTATADENOMIC; ANTIPROSTATITIC 10–20 MG/3×/DAY/ORL MAN; ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR (CERVIX); ANTITUMOR (LUNG); ANTIVIRAL; ARTEMICIDE LC50 = 110 PPM; CANDIDICIDE; ESTROGENIC; GONADOTROPIC; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC 2–6 G/MAN/DAY/ORL; HYPOGLYCEMIC;
HYPOLIPIDEMIC 2–6 G/DAY; HYPOLIPOPROTEINAEMIC; SPERMICIDE; UBIQUICT; ULCEROGENIC 500 MG/KG
IPR RAT; LD50 = 3000 MG/KG IPR MUS; LDLO = >10,000 INJ RAT.
BETA-SITOSTEROL-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE — ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTISPASMODIC (20 MG/KG); ANTITUMOR;
HYPOGLYCEMIC.
CITRIC-ACID—SEE ALSO HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA.
COUMARIN — SEE ALSO DIPTERYX ODORATA.
QUERCETIN — SEE ALSO ALPINIA OFFICINARUM.
RUTIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ALLELOCHEMIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAPOPLECTIC; ANTIATHEROGENIC;
ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY 20–100 MG ORL MAN; ANTICATARACT; ANTICLASTOGENIC;
ANTICONVULSANT; ANTICVI 270 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTIDEMENTIC; ANTIDERMATITIC; ANTIDIABETIC; ANTIEDEMIC
270 MG/DAY/ORL MAN; ANTIERYTHEMIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIGLAUCOMIC 60 MG/DAY; ANTIHEMATURIC; ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY 20 MG/KG; ANTIMALARIAL IC50 = >100 ΜG/ML; ANTIMUTAGENIC ID50 = 2–5 NM; ANTINEPHROTIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC28 = 30
PPM, IC50 = 120 ΜM; ANTIPURPURIC; ANTIRADICULAR (9 × QUERCETIN); ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISUNBURN;
ANTITHROMBOGENIC; ANTITUMOR-PROMOTER; ANTITRYPANOSOMIC 100 MG/KG; ANTIULCER; ANTIVARICOSE;
ANTIVIRAL; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CATABOLIC; ESTROGENIC?; HEMOSTAT; HEPATOMAGENIC
20,000 PPM (DIET) RAT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; HYPOTENSIVE; INSECTICIDE; INSECTIPHILE; JUVABIONAL;
LARVISTAT IC95 = 4000–8000 PPM DIET; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC75 = 2.5 MM; MUTAGENIC; MYORELAXANT; OVIPOSITION-STIMULANT; RADIOPROTECTIVE; SUNSCREEN; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC50 = 1
ΜG/ML; VASOCONSTRICTOR; LD50 = 950 (IVN MUS).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CAPSICUM SPP. L. (SOLANACEAE)
BIRD CHILLI, BIRD PEPPER, CHILI PEPPER, HOT PEPPER,
RED CHILI, SPUR PEPPER, TABASCO PEPPER
SYNONYMS — CAPSICUM MINIMUM BLANCO, CAPSICUM FASTIGIATUM BL.
MEDICINAL USES (HOT PEPPER) — TABASCOS ARE HIGHLY REGARDED AS DISEASE PREVENTIVES, LIKE GARLIC
AND ONION, WITH WHICH IT IS OFTEN MIXED. FINELY POWDERED SEED OR FRUIT GIVEN IN DELIRIUM TREMENS.
CAYENNE PEPPER USED EXTERNALLY AS STIMULANT, COUNTERIRRITANT, AND RUBEFACIENT; INTERNALLY AS A
DIGESTIVE, AND TO DISPEL GAS AND ROUSE THE APPETITE. NAVAJO ARE SAID TO USE CAYENNE IN WEANING
CHILDREN FROM BREAST FEEDING (LIBSTER, 2002). REMEMBER THAT MILK WILL DISSOLVE SOME CAPSAICIN.
EXPERIMENTALLY, RED PEPPER IS HYPOGLYCEMIC.
MANY MEDICINAL PROPERTIES DEPEND ON AMOUNT OF CAPSAICIN (0.2–1%) PRESENT. FRUIT FROM AFRICA
IS HIGHEST IN CAPSAICIN. CAPSAICIN, THE MAJOR PUNGENT PRINCIPLE, STIMULATES SALIVATION AND SWEATING.
SOME PEOPLE SUGGEST CAPSICUM FOR ALOPECIA. WEED (2002) SAYS RE ALOPECIA, “AVOID CAYENNE. HEROIC
HERBALISTS SAY IT INCREASES HAIR GROWTH BY IMPROVING BLOOD CIRCULATION TO THE SCALP. BUT WHEN THERE
IS HAIR LOSS, SAYS JANET ROBERTS, MD, SPECIALIST IN WOMEN’S HAIR LOSS AND MEMBER OF THE OREGON
MENOPAUSE NETWORK, THERE ARE INFLAMED FOLLICLES. CAYENNE INCREASES INFLAMMATION, ULTIMATELY
INCREASING HAIR LOSS” (WEED, 2002). WARMING HERBS LIKE CAYENNE, CINNAMON, AND GINGER MAY INCREASE
ENERGY BUT MAY INCREASE HOT FLASHES, TOO (WEED, 2002).
ANDREWS (1995) CITES THE WORK OF IRWIN ZIMENT, UCLA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, WHO ROUTINELY
PRESCRIBES HOT SPICES SUCH AS BLACK PEPPER, GINGER, HORSERADISH, HOT PEPPER, AND MUSTARD FOR ASTHMA,
BRONCHITIS, AND OTHER CHRONIC RESPIRATORY TRACT PROBLEMS. BUT THIS WAS ALL PROBABLY PART OF THE MAYAN
TRADITION. ZIMENT RECOMMENDS A CHILLI A DAY, CA. ONE THREE-INCH CAYENNE-TYPE, WITH MEALS. CAPSICUM
MAY BE HELPFUL IN COLDS, COUGHS, OR HAY FEVER. CAPSAICIN IRRITATES THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES LINING
THE NOSE AND THROAT, CAUSING THEM TO WEEP A WATERY SECRETION, “MAKING IT EASIER FOR YOU TO COUGH
UP MUCUS OR CLEAR YOUR NOSE WHEN YOU BLOW” (RIN). AND HEATING UP THAT CHICKEN SOUP WITH HOT
PEPPER MAY BE A PLEASANT DECONGESTANT FOR COLDS (HAD, RIN). THE ORAL LD50 IS 97–294 MG/KG IN
MICE, MEANING THAT TO INGEST A LETHAL DOSE, I, A 220 LB (100 KG) RAT, WOULD NEED INGEST SOME 135–415
OZ OF HOT PEPPER. NO WAY (TAD).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALCOHOLICS SEEM TO HAVE AN AFFINITY FOR HOT PEPPERS. TODAY, THERE’S THE BLOODY MARY; TOMORROW, THE
HOT PEPPER FOR THE HANGOVER. ACCORDING TO LIBSTER (2002), IN THE WILD, WILD WEST, CAYENNE WAS BELIEVED
THE BEST REMEDY FOR THE DTS. PEOPLE INGESTED CAPSICUM IN SOUP TO HELP ALLEVIATE THE CRAVING FOR ALCOHOL
AND FOR THE NAUSEA OF TOO MUCH ALCOHOL. HOT PEPPERS WERE BELIEVED TO PREVENT VOMITING, TONIFY THE
STOMACH, AND PROMOTE DIGESTION IN ALCOHOLICS (LIBSTER, 2002). MANDRAM IS A WEST INDIAN STOMACHIC
PREPARATION OF MASHED CHILIES IN MADEIRA WINE, WITH CUCUMBER, SHALLOT, CHIVES OR ONIONS, AND LIME JUICE.
SAID TO AID ALCOHOLICS BY REDUCING DILATED BLOOD VESSELS, THUS RELIEVING CHRONIC CONGESTION.
LAVISHING ANTISEPTIC PRAISE ON LOUISIANA HOT SAUCE, ANDREWS (1995) CITES LSU STUDIES THAT
SHOWED THAT STRAIGHT LOUISIANA HOT SAUCE KILLED ALL THE BACTERIA IN A TEST TUBE WITHIN A MINUTE. EVEN
AT A DILUTION OF 1:16, IT KILLED THEM IN 5 MIN. FOR OSTREAPHILES, THE HOT SAUCE KILLED VIBRIO VULNIFICUS,
A GERM THAT MAKES OYSTER-EATING DANGEROUS. SHARMA ET AL. (2000) SHOWED THAT, THOUGH BACTERICIDAL
ON THEIR OWN, EXTRACTS OF BLACK PEPPER, CAPSICUM, AND TURMERIC PARTIALLY PROTECTED BACILLUS MEGATERIUM, BACILLUS PUMILUS, AND ESCHERICHIA FROM RADIATION, PROBABLY PROTECTING THEIR DNA. CHILE
WAS STRONGEST. WHILE THERE IS NO RECORD TO MY KNOWLEDGE OF CAPSICUM COMBATING BACILLUS ANTHRACIS,
CAYENNE INHIBITS BACILLUS CEREUS AND B. SUBTILIS, CLOSTRIDIUM SPP, AND STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES, AT
LEAST IN VITRO (LIBSTER, 2002). CHILE WAS ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS,
AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999). AND, RIGHTLY OR WRONGLY, ANDREWS (1995) REPORTS THAT HOT PEPPER
REPELS SOME BIG CRITTERS TOO—DOGS FROM GARBAGE CANS, SQUIRRELS FROM BULB PLANTINGS AND BIRDSEED
IN BIRD FEEDERS, CATS FROM FLOWERBEDS, BURROWING ARMADILLOS, AND CHILDREN WHO SUCK COINS OUT OF
SLOT MACHINES, NOT TO MENTION WEANING CHILDREN OFF THE BREAST.
THE LINIMENT MADE FROM THE FRUIT IS SAID TO BE A FOLK REMEDY FOR INDOLENT TUMORS AND INDURATED
MAMMAE. THE WHOLE PLANT, STEEPED IN MILK, IS SAID TO REMEDY HARDENED TUMORS (JLH). IN A REVIEW
PAPER, BUCHANAN (1978) REPORTED THAT FEEDING RATS A PROTEIN-DEFICIENT DIET CONTAINING 10% CHILI
PEPPERS PRODUCED A 54% INCIDENCE OF HEPATOMAS, SUGGESTING THAT CAPSAICIN MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE
ETIOLOGY OF HUMAN LIVER CANCER, PARTICULARLY IN THOSE REGIONS WHERE DIETARY PROTEIN IS MINIMAL.
AUTHORS HAVE REPORTED THAT RED PEPPERS ARE CARCINOGENIC OR CO-CARCINOGENIC. STILL, THE LOW INCIDENCE
OF GASTRIC CANCERS IN LATIN AMERICA HAS SUGGESTED TO OTHERS THAT THE HOT PEPPER MIGHT BE ANTICARCINOGENIC. EVEN THE AMERICAN CANCER INSTITUTE, AN AGENCY THAT ALSO RECOMMENDS TAMOXIFEN, A
CARCINOGEN, FOR THE PREVENTION OF CANCER, ALSO ADMITS THAT DIETS RICH IN FOODS WELL ENDOWED WITH
BETA-CAROTENE MAY LOWER THE RISKS OF SOME TYPES OF CANCER. RED PEPPERS ARE RICH IN CAROTENOIDS
AND RICHER IN ASCORBIC ACID THAN CITRUS (TAD). BUT CAPSAICIN MAY BE A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD. STUDIES
ON THE TOXICITY, MUTAGENIC, AND CARCINOGENIC/CO-CARCINOGENIC ACTIVITIES OF CAPSAICIN HAD CONFLICTING
RESULTS, MOST DEPENDING ON THE DOSE. MOST STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LOW CONSUMPTION OF CHILES IS
BENEFICIAL, WHILE HIGH CONSUMPTION MAY BE DELETERIOUS. CHILE CONSUMPTION MAY CREATE A RISK FOR
GASTRIC CANCER, BUT IT ALSO PROTECTS AGAINST ASPIRIN-INDUCED INJURY OF THE GASTRODUODENAL MUCOSA IN
HUMANS AND EXHIBITS A PROTECTIVE FACTOR AGAINST PEPTIC ULCERS. ORALLY ADMINISTERED CAPSAICIN ALSO
EXHIBITS CHEMOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITIES AGAINST SOME CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS AND MUTAGENS, BUT ONE STUDY
IN CHILE FOUND THAT GALLBLADDER CARCINOMA WAS CORRELATED WITH THE HIGH INTAKE OF BOTH GREEN AND
RED CHILES (TAD). TRANSLATION: ALL THINGS IN MODERATION. RATS FED 10% CHILI HAD A HIGHER INCIDENCE
OF LIVER TUMORS THAN CONTROLS. THE LATEST STUDY AVAILABLE TO ME SHOWED THAT RATS FED DIETS WITH 500
PPM CAPSAICIN DIETS HAD 60% FEWER COLON CANCERS (YOSHITANI ET AL., 2001). ANDREWS (1995) EVOKES
A PERSONAL COMMUNICATION FROM PETER GANNETT, ONE OF THE EARLIER SCIENTISTS WHO SHOWED THAT, IN
ABSURD QUANTITIES (CORRESPONDING TO SEVERAL POUNDS OF HOT PEPPER A DAY FOR LIFE), CAPSAICIN MIGHT
BE MUTAGENIC OR TUMORIGENIC. GANNET TOLD ANDREWS THAT THE PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF CAPSAICIN SEEM TO
OUTWEIGH ANY CARCINOGENIC OR MUTAGENIC POTENTIAL.
ACCORDING TO JOSEPH ET AL. (2002), GREEN PEPPERS ARE BETTER AT BLOCKING NITROSAMINE THAN
TOMATOES (JNU), ALL THE MORE REASON TO ADD GREEN PEPPER WITH YOUR RED PEPPER TO THOSE BARBECUES
(JAD). AS ONE OF THE BEST SOURCES OF ORAC ANTIOXIDANTS IN GENERAL, CONTAINING ASCORBIC ACID, BETACAROTENE, BETA-CRYPTOXANTHIN, LUTEIN, AND ZEAXANTHIN, PEPPERS ARE COLORFUL ADDITIONS TO YOUR MEDICINE
CHEST AS WELL, WHEN YOU CONSIDER ALL THE DISEASES THOSE NUTRIENTS ARE REPORTED TO PREVENT OR ALLEVIATE.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
RED PEPPER CONTAINS TWICE THE VITAMIN C AND NINE TIMES THE VITAMIN A EQUIVALENT OF GREEN PEPPERS.
MIX AND MATCH! ENJOY!
WOOD (1993) EDITED A WHOLE BOOK ON CAPSAICIN AND PAIN. ANDREWS (1995) PRESENTS A BEAUTIFULLY
ILLUSTRATED BOOK WITH 34 COLOR PLATES, ALL ON CAPSICUM. SHE TOO HAS A GREAT SECTION ON PAIN. ALTHOUGH
GIVING US A FORMULA FOR HOMEMADE CAPSAICIN CREAM, ANDREWS CONFESSES THAT SHE HERSELF INDULGES
IN THE STORE-BOUGHT ANALGESIC, ZOSTRIX, WHICH COSTS MORE THAN $38 PER OZ. SHE WAS, LIKE SO MANY
WRITERS, SUFFERING FROM WRITER’S ARTHRITIS, IF NOT CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME. SHE RUBBED HER ARTHRITIC
FINGERS SLOWLY FOUR TIMES A DAY AND EXPERIENCED “BLESSED RELIEF IN LESS THAN THREE WEEKS.” SHE ALSO
FOUND THAT IT ABATED THE PAIN OF ELBOW TENDINITIS AND CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME IN THE THUMB. TO MAKE
16 OZ “CAPSAID,” YOU’LL NEED 8 OZ OF RIPE HABANEROS, A PINT OF GLYCERINE OR INERT MINERAL OIL, AND
AN OUNCE OF BROKEN BEESWAX OR PARAFFIN. MICROWAVE THE PEPPERS CA. 3 MIN WITH 1–2 TBSP WATER IN
A SEALED POLYETHYLENE BAG, UNTIL THE STEMS ARE EASY TO REMOVE. STRAIN THE WATER OFF THE PEPPERS,
REMOVE THE STEM, AND MACERATE OR CHOP, WITH THE SEEDS. PUT PEPPERS WITH OIL IN POT; BRING SLOWLY
TO A BOIL, LOWER HEAT, AND SIMMER 4 HR, THEN COOL FOR 4 HR. REPEAT TWO TIMES FOR A TOTAL OF 12 HR
COOKING, 12 HR COOLING. STRAIN THE PULP, EXPRESSING THE JUICE TO GO THROUGH THE STRAIN. DISCARD THE
RESIDUE. BLEND IN ELECTRIC BLENDER THE PUREED PULP AND OIL. STRAIN ONE MORE TIME THROUGH FINE METAL
STRAINER LINED WITH ONE-PLY TISSUE PAPER. RETURN TO CLEAN PAN, ADDING THE BEESWAX OR PARAFFIN AND
MELTING CAREFULLY OVER LOW HEAT, STIRRING UNTIL WELL BLENDED. COOL SLIGHTLY AND POUR INTO PLASTIC VIALS
OR FLAT CONTAINER JARS IN WHICH YOUR SALVE CAN HARDEN, HOPEFULLY NOT TOO MUCH (ANDREWS, 1995,
ADAPTED FROM JEANNE ROSE’S THE AROMATHERAPY BOOK).
INDICATIONS (HOT PEPPER) — ADENOMA (1; X11604990); AGUE (F; IED); ALCOHOLISM (1; PHR; PH2;
WO2); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ANGINA (F; LIB); ANOREXIA (1; APA; PHR; WBB; WO2); ANOREXIA NERVOSA
(F; PH2); ARRHYTHMIA (1; FNF); ARTHROSIS (PAIN) (1; APA; BGB; FNF; SKY); ASTHMA (1; JFM; JNU);
ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; PHR; PH2); BACILLUS (1; X10548758); BACKACHE (1; APA; WBB); BACTERIA (1;
FNF; X10548758); BLEEDING (F; DAD); BOIL (F; IED; JFM); BRONCHOSIS (1; APA); BURN (F; LIB);
BURSITIS (1; SKY); CANCER (F; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; X11604990); CANCER,
NOSE (F; JLH); CANCER, SKIN (F; JLH); CARDIOPATHY (1; FNF; PHR; PH2); CATARACT (1; DAD); CHICKENPOX (1; APA); CHILBLAINS (1; BGB; PNC; WO2); CHILDBIRTH (1; 60P); CHILL (F; APA); CHOLERA (F;
IED; PH2; JAF49:31010); CHROMHIDROSIS (1; LIB); CIRCULOSIS (1; WAM); CLUSTER HEADACHE (1; APA);
COLD (1; APA; FNF; JFM; RIN); COLIC (1; APA; FNF; JFM; PNC); CONGESTION (1; DAD; FNF; JFM);
COUGH (F; JFM; PH2); CRAMP (2; FNF; KOM; PH2); CYSTOSIS (F; LIB); DELIRIUM (F; LIB); DIABETES
(1; APA); DIABETIC NEUROPATHY (1; SKY); DIARRHEA (F; PHR; PH2); DIPHTHERIA (F; LIB); DROPSY (F;
IED); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; BGB; IED; PH2; WO2); DYSPNEA (F; DAV); EARACHE (F; IED); EDEMA (F;
PH2); ENTEROSIS (F; PH2); EPITHELIOMA (F; JLH); ESCHERICHIA (1; X10548758); FEVER (1; IED; PHR;
PH2; TAD); FLU (1; DAV; FNF); FROSTBITE (F; BGB; PHR; PH2; SPI); FUNGUS (1; X10548758);
GANGRENE (F; LIB); GAS (1; APA; DAV); GASTROSIS (1; JFM; PH2; TRA; WO2); GIDDINESS (F; IED);
GOUT (F; IED; PH2); HAY FEVER (1; RIN); HEADACHE (1; APA; WAM); HEAD COLD (1; RIN); HEMORRHOID
(F; IED; JFM; WBB); HEPATOSIS (F; WBB; WO2); HERPES ZOSTER (1; DAV; SKY); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
(1; FNF); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; APA; FNF; TRA); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1; APA); HOARSENESS (F; PHR);
IMPOTENCE (F; LIB; PHR); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF; IED; PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF;
TRA; WO2); INORGASMIA (F; PHR); ISCHEMIA (1; FNF); ITCH (2; ABS); KERNEL (F; JLH); LARYNGOSIS
(F; PNC); LUMBAGO (1; APA; PHR; PH2; PNC); MALARIA (F; IED; PHR; PH2); MASTOSIS (F; JLH);
MYCOSIS (1; X10548758); MYOSIS (2; APA; KOM; PHR; PH2; PNC); NEPHROSIS (F; LIB); NEURALGIA
(1; APA; SKY; WO2); NEUROPATHY (1; TAD); OBESITY (1; FNF; HAD); OSTEOARTHROSIS (1; LIB; TAD);
OTOSIS (F; PH2); PAIN (2; APA; BGB; FNF; PH2; WBB); PHARYNGOSIS (1; DAD; PH2); PLAGUE (F;
WBB); PNEUMONIA (F; LIB); PROCTOSIS (F; LIB); PRURIGO (2; ABS); PSORIASIS (1; APA; FNF; SKY);
PULMONOSIS (F; IED; 60P); RESPIROSIS (F; IED); RHEUMATISM (2; APA; FNF; PHR; PH2; TRA); RHINOSIS
(F; JLH); SCARLET FEVER (F; PH2); SCIATICA (1; PH2); SEASICKNESS (F; PH2); SHINGLES (1; APA); SNAKEBITE
(F; IED; 60P); SORE (F; LIB); SORE THROAT (1; JFM; PHR; PH2); SPRAIN (1; APA); STRAIN (1; APA);
STOMACHACHE (F; JAF49:3101); STOMATOSIS (F; LIB); STROKE (1; PHR; PH2); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; LIB);
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SWELLING (F; DAD; WBB); TACHYCARDIA (1; FNF); TENNIS ELBOW (1; JAD); TENSION (2; PH2); THUMBSUCKING (1; APA; BGB); THYROSIS (F; PED); TONSILOSIS (F; LIB); TOOTHACHE (1; DAV; 60P); TYPHOID
(F; IED); TYPHUS (F; JAF49:3101); ULCER (F; BGB; LIB); UTI (F; PH2); VARICOSIS (1; JAD; WBB;
WO2); VIRUS (1; WO2); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WOUND (1; JFM; WO2); XEROSTOMA (1; FNF);
YEAST (1; X10548758); YELLOW FEVER (F; JAF49:3101; PH2).
HOT PEPPER FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIARRHYTHMIC: APIIN; CAPSAICIN; FERULIC-ACID; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIATHEROGENIC: RUTIN
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: LUTEIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIHEMORRHAGIC: PHYLLOQUINONE
• ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL: RUTIN
• ANTIISCHEMIC: CAPSAICIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; LUTEIN;
MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTITACHYCARDIC: CAPSAICIN; SOLASODINE
• ANTITHROMBIC: FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ARTERIODILATOR: FERULIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; HESPERIDIN; SOLANINE
• CARDIOTONIC: CAPSAICIN; SOLANINE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAPSAICIN; HESPERIDIN; QUERCETIN
• DIURETIC: ASPARAGINE; BETAINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: BETA-IONONE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DIHYDROCAPSAICIN; RUTIN
• HYPOTENSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; PHYLLOQUINONE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; VALERIC-ACID
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVONE; CARYOPHYLLENE; ISOVALERIC-ACID; LIMONENE; PULEGONE; SOLANINE; VALERIC-ACID
• VASODILATOR: CAPSAICIN; QUERCETIN
HOT PEPPER FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN;
MYRCENE; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN; SOLANINE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CINNAMIC-ACID; MYRCENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-IONONE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; DELTA-3-CARENE; FERULIC-ACID;
LIMONENE; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PULEGONE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; TERPINEN-4-
OL; THUJONE
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; SOLANINE
• ANTIFLU: CAFFEIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; PULEGONE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; DELTA-3-CARENE; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; QUERCETIN;
RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SCOPOLETIN; SOLASODINE
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; LUTEIN;
MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: PULEGONE; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CARVONE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; LIMONENE; OXALIC-ACID; SCOPOLETIN; TERPINEN4-OL; THUJONE
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN;
RUTIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: SCOPOLETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAPSAICIN; HESPERIDIN; QUERCETIN
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
FERULIC-ACID
• INTERFERONOGENIC: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: FERULIC-ACID
HOT PEPPER FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN;
MYRCENE; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN; SOLANINE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CINNAMIC-ACID; MYRCENE
• ANTIDERMATITIC: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; DELTA-3-CARENE; FERULIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; QUERCETIN;
RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SCOPOLETIN; SOLASODINE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; APIIN; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; THUJONE; VALERIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; THUJONE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAPSAICIN; HESPERIDIN; QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; HESPERIDIN; PCOUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; RUTIN; SCOPOLETIN; VALERIC-ACID
OTHER USES (HOT PEPPER) — SOURCE OF CAYENNE PEPPER AND CHILI POWDER, USED IN TABASCO SAUCE
AND OTHER PREPARATIONS. GROUND RED PEPPER, OR CAYENNE PEPPER, IS A SHARP, HOT POWDER MADE FROM
DRIED RIPE CHILES. GROUND RED PEPPER IS AN INGREDIENT IN MANY SPICE BLENDS, PARTICULARLY CHILI POWDER
(RED CAYENNE, 83%; CUMIN (OR SUBSTITUTE GROUND CARAWAY), 9%; OREGANO, 4%; SALT, 2.5%; AND GARLIC
POWDER, 1.5%) (RIN). CAYENNE PEPPER IS INCORPORATED IN LAYING MIXTURES FOR POULTRY. EXTRACT USED
IN MANUFACTURE OF GINGER BEER AND OTHER BEVERAGES. THE HOT PIQUANT FRUITS ARE PICKLED, AND USED AS
A SPICE, OR MADE INTO HOT PEPPER SAUCE. YOUNG LEAVES AND TOPS OF THE STEMS ARE OCCASIONALLY STEAMED
AND EATEN AS VEGETABLES. IN THAILAND, JUICE FROM THE LEAVES ADDS COLOR AND THAT HOT, SPICY FLAVOR TO
CURRIES (FAC). FOR A HOT/COLD TREAT, TRY A SPRINKLING OF CANDIED GREEN JALAPEÑO OVER CHOCOLATE ICE
CREAM (ARNDT, 1999).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AND DON’T GET THE STUFF ON YOUR FINGERS AND THEN TOUCH YOUR SENSITIVE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. WATER
WILL NOT CUT CAPSAICIN — NOT EVEN SOAPY WATER. ALKALINE MATERIALS LIKE CHLORINE OR AMMONIA WILL
IONIZE THE CAPSAICINS, PERMITTING THEM TO GO INTO SOLUTION. TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) SUGGEST,
AFTER HANDLING HOT PEPPERS, WASHING THE HANDS WITH AMMONIA OR CHLORINE BLEACH, WHICH TURNS
CAPSAICIN INTO WATER SOLUBLE SALTS. RINZLER (1990) MENTIONS THAT CAPSAICIN DOES DISSOLVE IN ALCOHOL,
MILK FAT, AND VINEGAR (RIN). FOR BURNING IN THE MOUTH, CHEAP VODKA MAY BE THE BEST ALTERNATIVE.
SOME PEOPLE DRINK TOMATO JUICE OR EAT A FRESH LEMON OR LIME TO STOP THE BURNING, THE THEORY BEING
THAT THE ACID COUNTERACTS THE ALKALINITY OF THE CAPSAICIN. IF YOU OVERDO A HOT PEPPER, THE BEST COOLANTS
ARE MILK, YOGURT, SOUR CREAM, AND OTHER DAIRY PRODUCTS — SAY, ICE CREAM. THEY ARE ALSO USEFUL IN
REMOVING RESIDUE FROM THE HANDS. CASEIN IN DAIRY PRODUCTS BREAKS THE BOND OF CAPSAICIN WITH THE
PAIN RECEPTORS IN THE MOUTH. SO MILK WORKS, TOO, IF YOU DON’T LIKE OR HAVE VODKA (TAD). BEER,
BREAD, RICE, AND TORTILLAS CAN ALSO HELP (AAR).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (HOT PEPPER) — CULTIVATION IS SAME AS FOR C. ANNUUM, EXCEPT THAT IT TAKES LONGER
FOR C. FRUTESCENS PEPPERS TO MATURE. PEPPERS, PERENNIAL AND HARDY ONLY IN FROST-FREE SITUATIONS,
TREATED AS ANNUALS IN FROST COUNTRY. THEY FARE WELL IN FULL SUN, FRIABLE AND POROUS SOILS, MOIST BUT
NOT CONSTANTLY WET, PH 4.3–8.7 (AVERAGE 6.1). GERMINATION TAKES 6–10 DAYS. ONE KILOGRAM OF
SEED PRODUCES 15,000–17,000 PLANTS, ENOUGH TO PLANT A HECTARE. SEED ARE SOWN IN SEEDBEDS EARLY
IN SPRING (MID MARCH) AND TRANSPLANTED TO FIELDS IN 7–8 WEEKS, SPACED ABOUT 60 CM APART, IN
ROWS 90–120 CM APART. SEEDLINGS FROM FIELD SOWN SEED ARE THINNED TO 30–45 CM APART. GROWN
MONOCULTURE, CAN BE TRANSPLANTED AND CULTIVATED BY MACHINE. IRRIGATION MAY BE NECESSARY. FREQUENT SHALLOW CULTIVATION IS NECESSARY TO CONTROL WEEDS UNTIL HARVESTING BEGINS. DO NOT PLANT
PEPPERS WHERE TOMATOES OR POTATOES HAVE GROWN WITHIN 3 YEARS OR WHERE PEPPERS WERE GROWN
THE PREVIOUS SEASON. IRRIGATION, USED WHEN NECESSARY, CAN INCREASE YIELDS SIXFOLD. SOIL SHOULD
HAVE ADEQUATE NUTRIENTS TO KEEP PEPPERS GROWING WELL. STABLE MANURE OR COMPLETE FERTILIZER SHOULD
BE USED ON FIELD BEFORE PLANTING, WITH SIDE DRESSINGS IN LATE MAY OR JUNE. INORGANIC GARDENERS
USE SPRAYS AS SOON AS INSECTS ARE EVIDENT. IN WARM WEATHER, EARLY CULTIVARS (CVS) MATURE IN 3–4
MONTHS; OTHER CVS MAY REQUIRE 4–5 MONTHS. FRUITS ARE HARVESTED MANUALLY, EVERY 7 DAYS. FRUIT
OF PAPRIKA IS DRIED WITH ARTIFICIAL HEAT IN BARNS OR SUNDRIED. HARVEST CONTINUES UNTIL FROST OR
ADVERSITY. IN INDIA, PEPPERS ARE GROWN UNDER DRY CONDITIONS IN ROTATION WITH SORGHUMS, GROUNDNUT,
AND MILLET, AND UNDER IRRIGATION WITH SUGARCANE AND CORN. PLANTS DEGENERATE UNDER CULTIVATION IN
1–2 YEARS. RE C. ANNUUM, THE SEEDS REMAIN VIABLE FOR 2–3 YEARS. LIKE TOMATOES, GREEN OR RED
PEPPERS MAY BE RIPENED ARTIFICIALLY, BETWEEN 21.5ΟC AND 25ΟC BEING BEST FOR RIPENING. AT 0ΟC,
PEPPERS MAY BE KEPT IN GOOD CONDITION FOR ABOUT 30 DAYS OR MORE, WITH 95–98% RELATIVE HUMIDITY
ADVISED. MAXIMUM YIELDS RARELY EXCEED 10 TONS/HA. IN SPACING STUDIES IN GEORGIA, YIELDS OF 7.5
TO 15 TONS/HA OF PIMENTOS ARE REPORTED. (SEE DAD FOR MORE.)
CHEMISTRY (HOT PEPPER) — THE ACTIVE INGREDIENT CAPSAICIN IS VERY HEAVILY STUDIED AS AN ANALGESIC
(WOOD, 1993). PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) NOTED THAT DIETARY CAPSAICIN SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED
LIPASE, MALTASE, AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES. CAPSAICIN CAUSES CONTACT DERMATITIS. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE
MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN HOT PEPPER. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE
USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BETA-CAROTENE — ANDROGENIC?; ANTIACNE; ANTIAGING; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTICANCER 22 PPM; ANTICARCINOMIC; ANTICORONARY 50 MG/MAN/2 DAYS; ANTIICHYTHYOTIC; ANTILEUKOPLAKIC; ANTILUPUS 150
MG/MAN/DAY/2 MO; ANTIMASTITIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIOZENIC; ANTIPHOTOPHOBIC 30–300
MG MAN/DAY; ANTIPMS; ANTIPORPHYRIC 30–300 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTIPITYRIASIC; ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTIPSORIAC; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTISTRESS; ANTITUMOR; ANTIULCER 12 MG/3×/DAY/MAN/ORL; ANTIXEROPHTHALMIC;
COLORANT; HYPOKERATOTIC; IMMUNOSTIMULANT 180 MG/MAN/DAY/ORL; INTERFERON-SYNERGIST; MUCOGENIC;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PHAGOCYTOTIC; PROOXIDANT 20 ΜG/G; THYMOPROTECTIVE; UBIQUICT; RDA = 2.25–7.8 MG/DAY; PTD =
15–30 MG/DAY; LD50 = >1000 MG/KG ORL RAT.
BETA-CRYPOTXANTHIN — ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTITUMOR (5 × CAROTENE); ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR
(CERVIX); COLORANT; VITAMIN-A-ACTIVITY.
CAPSAICIN — ADRENERGIC; ANALGESIC; ANAPHYLACTIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIARRHYTHMIC 100
ΜM; ANTICANCER; ANTICOLONOSPASMIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIISCHEMIC 100 ΜM; ANTIMASTALGIC;
ANTINEURALGIC; ANTINEURITIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIODONTALGIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPSORIATIC; ANTIPYRETIC 7 MG/KG; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISUBSTANCE-P; ANTITACHYCARDIC 100 ΜM; ANTITUMOR
(LUNG); ANTIULCER; ATPASE-INHIBITOR; BRONCHOCONSTRICTOR; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST 100 ΜM; CARCINOGENIC; CARDIOTONIC; CATABOLIC; CATECHOLAMINIGENIC; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; CYTOCHROME-P450-
INHIBITOR; DIAPHORETIC; DIGESTIVE; ENDOCRINACTIVE 50 MG/KG SCU RAT; IRRITANT; LACTASE-PROMOTER;
LAXATIVE; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; MALTASE-PROMOTER; MUTAGENIC; NEUROTOXIC; REPELLENT; RADIOPROTECTIVE; RESPIRASENSITIZER; RUBEFACIENT; SECRETAGOGUE; SIALAGOGUE; SUCRASE-PROMOTER; TACHYPHYLACTIC; THERMOGENIC; VASODILATOR; LDLO = 1.6 IVN CAT; LD50 = 0.56 IVN MUS; LD50 = 7.56 IPR
MUS; LD50 = 10 IPR RAT; LD50 = 47 MG/KG ORL RAT; LD50 = 190 ORL MUS; LD50 97–294 ORL MUS;
LD50 = 9.00 SCU MUS.
CAPSIDOL — FUNGICIDE; PHYTOALEXIN.
LUTEIN — ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTIMACULITIC; ANTINYCTALOPIC; ANTIPROLIFERANT; ANTITUMOR (BREAST);
ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRADICULAR; CARDIOPROTCTIVE; COLORANT; PROOXIDANT 5–40 ΜG/G;
QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 2.5 ΜG; RETINOPROTECTANT OPTOMETRY; UBIQUICT.
ZEAXANTHIN — ANTITUMOR (BREAST); COLORANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER.
CARUM CARVI L. (APIACEAE)
CARAWAY
SYNONYM — CARUM VELENOVSKYI ROHLENA
MEDICINAL USES (CARAWAY) — ANTISPASMODIC, BACTERICIDAL, CARMINATIVE, DIAPHORETIC, DIGESTIVE,
DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, FUNGICIDAL, LACTAGOGUE, LAXATIVE, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CARAWAY HAS BEEN USED TO ALLEVIATE ALOPECIA, BRUISES, CHOLERA, EARACHE, FISTULA, HALITOSIS, HEADACHE,
HOOKWORM, HYSTERIA, IMPOTENCE, PROLAPSE, SORES, AND SYPHILIS (LIL). CHINESE USE THE ROOTS FOR
ARTHRALGIA, CONVULSIONS, FEVER, FLU, HEADACHE, AND TETANUS. ENTERIC-COATED AND NON-ENTERIC-COATED
CARAWAY-PEPPERMINT OIL COMBINATIONS ARE SAFE PREPARATIONS WHICH ACT LOCALLY CAUSING SMOOTH
MUSCLE RELAXATION. I THINK EVEN MY COLONOSCOPIST USES IT, SURELY THE PEPPERMINT, TO KEEP MY COLON
FROM CRAMPING DOWN ON HIS SCOPE. THIS MYORELAXANT EFFECT MAY EXPLAIN RESULTS OBSERVED IN CLINICAL
TRIALS WITH PATIENTS SUFFERING FUNCTIONAL DYSPEPSIA (MICKLEFIELD ET AL., 2000).
WEED (2002) SUGGESTS HEAVY CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN SPICES WHEN ESTROGEN LEVELS ARE DOWN.
SEEDS LIKE CARAWAY, CELERY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, POPPY AND SESAME, MUSTARD AND ANISE, FENNEL AND
FENUGREEK ALL CONTAIN PHYTOESTROGENS, AS DO THEIR OILS, SAYS WEED. SHE SUGGESTS USING THESE SEEDS
“LAVISHLY” WHEN COOKING OR MAKING TEA WITH ANY ONE OF THEM, DRINKING 3–4 CUPS A DAY “FOR BEST
RESULTS” (WEED, 2002). ONE NURSING FORMULA RECOMMENDS ANY ONE OF THE AROMATIC UMBELLIFEROUS
SEEDS, CARAWAY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL, FENNEL, OR ANISE, WITH RASPBERRY OR NETTLE LEAVES AND BLESSED
THISTLE OR BORAGE LEAVES. THE CARAWAY SEEDS “INCREASE MILK PRODUCTION AND TONE THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM;
THEIR POWERS ARE CARRIED THROUGH THE BREAST MILK AND INTO THE CHILD, CURTAILING COLIC AND INDIGESTION”
(WEED, 1985).
CARAWAY SEED OIL IS BOTH ANTIBACTERIAL AND ANTISPASMODIC, AND INHIBITS SKIN TUMORS (TAD). THE
OIL ALSO HAS ANTIHISTAMINIC, FUNGICIDAL, AND LARVICIDAL PROPERTIES. EOS OF CARAWAY ARE EXTREMELY
ACTIVE RELATIVE TO THE TUBERCULOSIS BACTERIUM.
THE MONOTERPENOID LIMONENE HAS RECEIVED A LOT OF FAVORABLE PRESS LATELY, ESPECIALLY RELATIVE TO
BREAST CANCER. LIMONENE NOT ONLY INHIBITS THE INITIATION OF CANCER IN THE LUNG, MAMMARIES, AND
FORESTOMACH, IT CAN EVEN LEAD TO REGRESSION IN MAMMARY CANCERS (IN RATS). AND I FIND THAT THOSE
THINGS PROVING USEFUL FOR BREAST CANCERS USUALLY PROVE USEFUL IN OTHER HORMONE-DEPENDENT CANCERS,
LIKE COLON AND PROSTATE. SHWAIREB ET AL. (1995) SHOWED THAT RATS WHOSE DIET CONSISTED OF 20% CARAWAY
AND WATERCRESS, BOTH GOOD SOUP INGREDIENTS THAT COULD BE SPICED UP WITH TURMERIC AND OTHER
ANTICANCER SPICES, MIGHT PREVENT BREAST CANCER. CARAWAY AFFORDED NEARLY 50% PROTECTION, WATERCRESS
28.5%. HUANG ET AL. (1994) INDICATED THAT D-CARVONE, AT 200 ΜM WAS EQUIVALENT TO D-LIMONENE AT
200 ΜM AT LEAST AT INHIBITING LUNG AND FORESTOMACH CANCER. OUR CARAWAY SEED, RICHEST SOURCE OF
LIMONENE (UP TO 3%), IS ALSO ONE OF THE RICHEST SOURCES OF CARVONE (UP TO NEARLY 4.5%). IT ALSO
CONTAINS PERILLYL-ALCOHOL.
BOIK (2001) MENTIONS LIMONENE FIRST AMONG MONOTERPENES HE DEEMS VALUABLE AGAINST CANCER.
HE CITES 15 IN VITRO AND 7 ANIMAL STUDIES SUGGESTING THAT MONOTERPENES INHIBIT A VARIETY OF AND
INDUCE REGRESSIONS IN TUMOR LINES. THE ANTICANCER EFFECTS OF LIMONENE HAVE BEEN STUDIED INTENSIVELY
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. WHILE BOIK SPECIFIES ORANGE OIL AS A MAJOR SOURCE, HE ADMITS THAT
SOME COMMERCIAL ORANGE OILS CONTAIN NO DETECTABLE LIMONENE. BUT CARAWAY AND CELERYSEED ARE THE
BEST WHOLE PLANT SOURCES IN MY DATABASE, ATTAINING LEVELS POTENTIALLY AS HIGH AS 3% AND 2.5%,
RESPECTIVELY. AT LEVELS LOWER THAN 1% IN RAT DIET, LIMONENE INHIBITED EXPERIMENTAL BREAST CANCER
DEVELOPMENT. ONE OF THE MAJOR MODES OF MONOTERPENE ACTION MAY BE IN DETOXIFICATION. THE RELATED
TERPENE, PERILLYL ALCOHOL, IS 5–10 TIMES MORE POTENT IN INHIBITING BREAST CANCER. BOTH LIMONENE AND
PERILLYL ALCOHOL ARE RAPIDLY METABOLIZED TO PERILLIC ACID. AT 2% OF DIET (CA. 1,500 MG/KG), PERILLYL
ALCOHOL REDUCED CHEMICALLY INDUCED LIVER TUMOR MASSES TENFOLD. APOPTOSIS WAS MARKEDLY INCREASED.
MUCH LOWER DOSES (75–150 MG/KG) PREVENTED THE INCIDENCE OF CHEMICALLY INDUCED RODENT COLON
CANCER. BOIK NOTES THAT, AS SO OFTEN, THE CHEMOPREVENTIVE DOSE IS LOWER THAN THE ANTITUMOR EFFECT,
IN THIS CASE THE PREVENTIVE DOSE IS 1/10TH TO 1/20TH THE TUMOR REDUCTION LEVEL. BOIK ASSUMES, AND I
FIND THIS A REASONABLE ASSUMPTION AFTER PONDERING SYNERGY FOR TWO DECADES, A FULL FIFTEENFOLD INCREASE
IN POTENCY DUE TO SYNERGISTIC INTERACTIONS. “SYNERGISTIC INTERACTIONS ARE PROBABLY NECESSARY FOR
LIMONENE AND PERILLYL ALCOHOL TO PRODUCE AN ANTICANCER EFFECT” (BO2). (FOR MORE DETAILS SEE THE
SYNERGY PRINCIPLE CHAPTER IN KAUFMAN ET AL., 1998.) LIKE OTHER COMPOUNDS BOIK DISCUSSES, MONOTERPENES “WILL BE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN TAKEN IN AT LEAST THREE DIVIDED DOSES PER DAY” (BO2). BOIK
WARNS THAT, AS WITH OTHER DRUGS AND PURE SOLITARY PHYTOCHEMICALS, TUMOR CELLS MAY EVOLVE RESISTANCE
TO MONOTERPENES (BO2). BUT I AM NOT ARGUING FOR ISOLATED PHYTOCHEMICALS; I ARGUE ONLY FOR
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PHYTOCHEMICALS IN THEIR NATURAL CONTEXT. IF BOIK IS CORRECT, WE CAN ROUGHLY CONVERT RAT DOSAGE DATA
(IN MG/KG) TO ESTIMATED HUMAN DOSAGE DATA SIMPLY BY DIVIDING BY 4 (OR 4.319 FOR THE PURIST), MOUSE
DATA DIVIDING BY 7 (OR 7.28 FOR THE PURIST). BUT OVERSIMPLIFYING, IT TOOK A HYPOTHETICAL 730 MG/KG
FOR A MOUSE, AND 430 MG/KG FOR A RAT; IT WOULD ONLY TAKE A MANAGEABLE 100 MG/KG FOR ME, WHICH
IF I CALCULATE CORRECTLY TRANSLATES TO 10 G FOR MY 100 KG BODY.
REMEMBER, IT IS CARAWAY SEED, NOT RYE SEED, THAT ADORN MOST RYE BREADS. SO BE SURE AND EAT
YOUR CRUST, IF LIKE ME, YOU ARE GENETICALLY TARGETED FOR COLON CANCER. RYE BRAN, EVEN BETTER THAN SOY,
PREVENTED COLONIC CRYPTS IN ANIMALS (DAVIES ET AL., 1999).
INDICATIONS (CARAWAY) — ALACTEA (F; EFS); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ALZHEIMER’S (1; FNF); ANEMIA
(1; APA); ANOREXIA (2; HHB; KOM; PIP); BACTERIA (1; FNF; HH2; PH2; WO2); BRONCHOSIS (2;
FNF; PHR); CANCER (1; BO2; FNF); CANCER, BREAST (1; BO2; FNF); CANCER, COLON (1; BO2; FNF);
CANCER, LIVER (1; BO2; FNF); CANCER, PANCREAS (1; BO2; FNF); CANCER, PROSTATE (1; BO2; FNF);
CANCER, STOMACH (1; BO2; FNF); CANDIDA (1; FNF; PHR); CARDIOPATHY (F; PHR; PH2); CHOLECYSTOSIS (2; PHR); COLD (2; APA; FNF; PHR); COLIC (1; DEP; KOM; PIP; WO2); CONGESTION
(1; FNF); COUGH (2; APA; FNF; PHR); CRAMP (1; DEP; FNF; PHR; PH2; SHT; WO2); DERMATOSIS
(F; PH2); DIARRHEA (F; BOW); DYSMENORRHEA (F; APA); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; DEP; HHB; KOM;
PHR; SHT); ECTOPARASITE (F; HHB); ENTEROSIS (F; DEP; PH2); FEVER (2; PHR); FLU (1; FNF);
FUNGUS (1; FNF; HH2; WO2); GAS (1; HHB; KOM; SHT); GASTROSIS (1; PH2; PIP; PNC WO2);
HEMORRHOID (F; DEP); HEPATOSIS (2; FNF; PHR); HERNIA (F; BOW); HIATAL HERNIA (F; BOW);
IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INCONTINENCE (F; APA); INFECTION (1; FNF; HH2; PHR; PH2);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); LARYNGOSIS (F; BOW); LUMBAGO (F; WO2); MELANOMA (1; FNF); METEORISM (F; PHR); MYOSIS (1; APA) NAUSEA (F; APA); NERVOUSNESS (F; PHR); NEUROSIS (F; PH2);
OPHTHALMIA (F; DEP); PAIN (1; FNF); PHARYNGOSIS (2; PHR); PLEUROSIS (1; HHB); RHEUMATISM
(1; HHB; WO2); SCABIES (1; WO2); STOMACHACHE (1; PNC); STOMATOSIS (2; FNF; PHR); STONE
(1; FNF); TRICHOMONAS (1; FNF); ULCER (F; BOW); UTEROSIS (F; DEP); WATER RETENTION (F; EFS);
WORM (1; DEP; EFS; FNF); YEAST (1; HH2; PH2).
CARAWAY FOR CANCER:
• 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIEBV: GERANIAL
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; METHANOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; FALCARINDIOL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN;
QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-MYRCENE; CAFFEICACID; CARVONE; DECAN-1-AL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-O-BETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; SCOPOLETIN;
UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; DELTA-3-CARENE; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-OBETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN-3-O-BETA-D-GLUCURONIDE; SALICYLATES; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTILEUKEMIC: ASTRAGALIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTILYMPHOMIC: XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: CARVACROL; PERILLALDEHYDE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIMETASTATIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FALCARINDIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN;
SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISTRESS: MYRISTICIN
• ANTITUMOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; GERANIAL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FALCARINDIOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; HERNIARIN; ISORHAMNETIN-3-GALACTOSIDE; ISORHAMNETIN-3-
GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ASTRAGALIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PHYTOHORMONAL: SCOPOLETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
CARAWAY FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FALCARINDIOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; HERNIARIN; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CITRONELLOL; CUMINALDEHYDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; FALCARINDIOL; GERANIAL; HERNIARIN; HYPEROSIDE;
ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE;
PERILLALDEHYDE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; DELTA-3-CARENE; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-OBETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN-3-O-BETA-D-GLUCURONIDE; SALICYLATES; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARVONE;
CITRONELLOL; FURFURAL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; N-NONANAL; SCOPOLETIN; TERPINEN-4-
OL; THUJONE; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISTRESS: MYRISTICIN
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; GERANIAL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL; SCOPOLETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ASTRAGALIN; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ASTRAGALIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
CARAWAY FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEBV: GERANIAL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIHERPETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; DELTA-3-CARENE; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCETIN-3-OBETA-D-GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN-3-O-BETA-D-GLUCURONIDE; SALICYLATES; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENOGENIC: SCOPOLETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIRADICULAR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; GERANIAL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CHOLAGOGUE: CAFFEIC-ACID; HERNIARIN; SCOPOLETIN
• CHOLERETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SCOPOLETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; HERNIARIN; ISORHAMNETIN-3-GALACTOSIDE; ISORHAMNETIN-3
GLUCOSIDE; QUERCETIN; SCOPOLETIN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• HEPATOTROPIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ASTRAGALIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
OTHER USES (CARAWAY) — LOVERS WHO ATE CARAWAY SEED WERE SAID TO ALWAYS REMAIN FAITHFUL,
AND ARTICLES CONTAINING THE SEED WERE SAID NEVER TO BE STOLEN, IN THE OLD FOLKLORE. THE SEED ON
AMERICAN RYE BREADS, ALSO ESSENTIAL ON KOSHER RYE, CARAWAY HAS MANY CULINARY USES. TRADITIONAL
WITH BEET, CABBAGE, AND CARROT, IT IS OFTEN SERVED WITH BAKED APPLES, OTHER FRUITS, AND BREADSTUFFS.
IT IS USED WITH GOULASH AND ROAST PORK. CHEESES, SOUPS, AND VINEGARS ARE ALSO FLAVORED WITH
CARAWAY. SEEDS SHOULD BE ADDED AFTER THE DISH IS ALMOST READY, AS PROLONGED COOKING RENDERS
THEM BITTER (RIN). SEVERAL LIQUEURS UTILIZE CARAWAY, E.G., AQUAVIT, DANZIG, DANZIGERWASSER,
GOLDVASSER, KUMMEL, L ‘HUI1E DE VENUS, AND CERTAIN TYPES OF SCHNAPPS AND BRANDIES. ONE
LUSTY LIQUEUR CALLED “LAYAWAY” (A JIM DUKE ORIGINAL) CONSISTS OF 1 OZ EACH SEEDS OF CARAWAY,
ANISE, AND FENNEL, STEEPED IN ONE PINT VODKA AND STRAINED. IN SCOTLAND, BUTTERED BREAD IS DIPPED
INTO A SAUCER OF CARAWAY SEED. UNBROKEN SEED RETAIN THEIR AROMA IF STORED IN AIR TIGHT CONTAINER
AND PROTECTED FROM LIGHT. GROUND OR MASHED CARAWAY SEED CAN BE SUBSTITUTED FOR CUMMIN IN
HOMEMADE CHILI POWDERS AND CURRIES. SEEDS ARE ALSO USED WITH SUGAR-COATED PLUMS AND TAKEN
AS A BREATH FRESHENER AND DIGESTIVE AID AFTER SPICY MEALS. SEEDS ARE CRUSHED AND BREWED INTO
A TEA. THE SEED OIL IS USED COMMERCIALLY IN ICE CREAM, CANDY, PICKLES, SOFT DRINKS, ETC. CARAWAY
LEAVES MAY BE CHOPPED UP AND USED AS A PARSLEY SUBSTITUTE. THE YOUNG LEAVES FORM A GOOD
SALAD, WHILE OLDER ONES MAY BE BOILED AND SERVED LIKE SPINACH OR ADDED TO SOUPS AND STEWS.
ROOTS ARE BOILED AND EATEN OR CHOPPED AND USED IN SOUPS, ESPECIALLY IN NORTHERN EUROPE. (DEP,
FAC, LIL).
POTENTIAL CARAWADE (ALIAS LIMONENADE) INGREDIENTS (ALL HERBS OR SPICES, IF YOU COUNT THE CITRUS PEEL
AS SPICE. I ENJOY BEVERAGES COMBINING ANY OF THESE THAT I HAVE ON HAND)
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CARAWAY) — HARDY ZONES 3–9, CARAWAY FARES WELL IN FULL SUN, IN LIGHT OR HUMUSRICH SOILS, WET BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WET, PH 4.8–7.8. (AVERAGE 6.4). FLOWERING AND DYING IN ITS
SECOND SEASON, THE BIENNIAL CARAWAY DOES WELL ON WELL-PREPARED, UPLAND FERTILE SOIL. SEEDS
(11,000/OZ; 390/G) ARE SOWN (CA. 4–6 LB/A) IN SPRING OR AUTUMN, AND THINNED TO 8–12 IN APART
PPM
APIUM GRAVEOLENS CELERYSEED 530–24,700 SD
CARUM CARVI CARAWAY 7860–30,180 SD
CITRUS AURANTIIFOLIA LIME 2795–6400 FR
CITRUS AURANTIUM SOUR ORANGE 1000–8000 FR
CITRUS LIMON LEMON 2796–8000 EO
CITRUS RETICULATA TANGERINE 6500–9400 FR
CITRUS SINENSIS ORANGE 8300–9700 FR
ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM CARDAMOM 595–9480 FR
FOENICULUM VULGARE FENNEL 200–9420 FR
ILLICIUM VERUM STAR-ANISE 100–5220 FR
MENTHA SPICATA SPEARMINT 200–5725 FR
MYRISTICA FRAGRANS NUTMEG 720–5760 FR
THYMUS VULGARIS THYME 15–5200 PL
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN ROWS. SEED GERMINATE BEST AT 59°F (15°C) FOR 8 HR AND 50°F (10°C) FOR 16 HR. GERMINATION
IS OPTIMAL AFTER SOAKING THE SEED 3–6 DAYS AND DRYING FOR 4 HR BEFORE PLANTING. ISRAELI’S LIKE
CA. 30 PLANTS PER SQUARE YARD (37 PER SQUARE METER) (TAD). THERE SHOULD BE TWO TO THREE PLANTS
PER FOOT IN ROWS CA. 30 IN APART. SEED WILL NOT MATURE UNTIL THE SECOND SEASON; HENCE CARAWAY
IS GOOD FOR INTERCROPPING WITH SUCH ANNUALS AS BEANS, CORIANDER, DILL, MUSTARD, AND PEAS. AFTER
INTERCROPS ARE HARVESTED THE FIRST YEAR, CARAWAY NEED ONLY BE WEEDED UNTIL IT MATURES THE SECOND
YEAR. LARGE GROWERS ARE MECHANIZED, FROM MECHANICAL DRILLING OF THE SEED, AND MECHANIZED
CULTIVATION, ON TO MECHANIZED HARVESTING AND THRESHING. THE SMALL HERBALIST MAY CUT THE PLANTS
TO DRY, USING A SICKLE OR SCYTHE, OR MAY PULL UP THE PLANTS OR CUT OFF THE TOPS ONE BY ONE. ONE
CAN EXPECT ABOUT 1.3 CUPS OF SEED PER PLANT. SEED YIELDS USUALLY RUN ABOUT 500–2000 LB/ACRE.
THERE IS A RESIDUAL TON OF STRAW, WHICH CAN SERVE AS ANIMAL FOOD (ROSENGARTEN, 1973). SEED
MUST BE DRIED AND STORED IN A DRY PLACE. RIPE SEED CAN BE DRIED IN THE SUN OR OVER LOW HEAT,
STIRRING OCCASIONALLY. SOME HERBALISTS SUGGEST THE SEEDS BE STERILIZED WITH SCALDING HOT WATER
TO GET RID OF INSECT PESTS. SEED CAN ALSO BE SALT-CURED, FROZEN, OR STEEPED IN VINEGAR (LIL, TAD,
DUKE, 1987).
CHEMISTRY (CARAWAY) — RINZLER (1990) SEEMS TO SEEK OUT THE NEGATIVE IN HER USEFUL BOOK, SO
SHE MENTIONS THAT CARVONE AND LIMONENE ARE IRRITANTS. “LIMONENE IS ALSO A PHOTOSENSITIZER, A
CHEMICAL THAT MAKES YOUR SKIN MORE SENSITIVE TO SUNLIGHT” (RIN). I CANNOT TELL WHERE SHE GOT HER
DATA, BUT SHE ACKNOWLEDGES TALKING WITH WALTER LEWIS, VARRO TYLER, AND MYSELF. HENCE, I HAVE
ADDED HER “PHOTOSENSITIZER” TO MY DATABASE FOR LIMONENE AND CITED RIN AS THE SOURCE. RINZLER
FAILS TO MENTION THE POTENTIAL OF LIMONENE IN BREAST CANCER, AND THE CHEMOPREVENTIVE NATURE OF
CARVONE. MY DATABASE PRESENTS A MORE BALANCED (NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE) ACCOUNT OF THE BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES OF LIMONENE, INCLUDING THE NEWLY REPORTED PHOTOSENSITIZER. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE
NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CARAWAY. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE
USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CARVACROL — SEE ALSO CUNILA ORIGANOIDES.
CARVEOL — CNS-STIMULANT.
CARVONE — ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC50 = 1.4–1.8 MM; ANTICANCER; ANTISEPTIC (1.5 × PHENOL); CARMINATIVE; CNS-STIMULANT; INSECTICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; MOTOR-DEPRESSANT; NEMATICIDE
MLC = 1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 300 ΜG/ML; VERMICIDE; LD50 = 1640
(ORL RAT).
LIMONENE — ACHE-INHIBITOR; ALLELOCHEMIC; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC22–26 = 1.2 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTILITHIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC
ED50 = 0.197 MG/ML; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR (PANCREAS); ANTITUMOR (PROSTATE);
ANTIVIRAL; CANDIDISTAT; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; DETOXICANT; ENTEROCONTRACTANT; EXPECTORANT; FUNGISTAT;
FUNGIPHILIC; HERBICIDE IC50 = 45 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE; INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE IC = 100 ΜG/ML;
ODC-INHIBITOR ~750 MG/KG (DIET); P450-INDUCER; PHOTOSENSITIZER; SEDATIVE ED = 1–32 MG/KG;
TRANSDERMAL; LD50 = 4600 (ORL RAT).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CERATONIA SILIQUA L. (FABACEAE)
CAROB, LOCUST BEAN, ST. JOHN’S-BREAD
MEDICINAL USES (CAROB) — SEEDS WERE ONCE SOLD AT A HIGH PRICE BY PHARMACISTS, WITH SINGERS
IMAGINING THEY CLEARED THE VOICE. THE POD IS USED AS AN ANTICATARRHAL, DEMULCENT, AND RESOLVENT,
THE LEAF AS ASTRINGENT (LEG). IN SOUTHERN EUROPE, THE PODS ARE USED FOR ASTHMA AND COUGH. VARIOUS
PORTIONS OF THE PLANT ARE USED AS ANTITUSSIVE, ASTRINGENT, PECTORAL, AND LAXATIVE. SINCE THE PODS CONTAIN
GALLIC ACID, A REPORTED ANTITUMOR COMPOUND, AND SEEDS CONTAIN TANNINS, IT SEEMS LOGICAL THAT CAROB
HAS A FOLK REPUTATION AGAINST CANCER (SPECIFICALLY VERRUCA AND INDURATIONS). MEDICINALLY, THE BEAN
GERM FLOUR IS USED FOR DIABETIC FOODS, AND THE BEAN PULP IS USED TO TREAT INFANTILE DIARRHEA. LEUNG
(1980) MENTIONS FOLK USAGE OF CAROB FLOUR FOR INFANTILE DIARRHEA AND A POD DECOCTION FOR CATARRHAL
INFECTION. SUFFERING FROM SALMONELLA DIARRHEA IN PANAMA, I WAS PUT ON A DIET OF CAROB FLOUR AND
WAS SUBSEQUENTLY CURED, EITHER BY CAROB OR COINCIDENCE. LEUNG ADDS THAT THE FLOUR IS CONSIDERED
BINDING, THE FLOWERS LAXATIVE (LAF). STILL TODAY, DR. LINDA WHITE SUGGESTS FOR DIARRHEA ADDING CAROB
TO APPLESAUCE OR OTHER PECTIN CONTAINING GENTLE-ON-THE-BOWELS FOODS (WHITE ET AL., 2000).
LIKE PECTIN, FIBER-LADEN CAROB, FED TO RATS GIVEN A HIGH CHOLESTEROL DIET, CONTROLLED ELEVATIONS IN
BLOOD AND LIVER CHOLESTEROL. RATS FED A FIBER-FREE DIET CONTAINING 1% CHOLESTEROL EXHIBITED A SMALL
INCREASE IN SERUM CHOLESTEROL AND A FIVEFOLD INCREASE IN LIVER CHOLESTEROL. ADDITION OF 10% PECTIN
OR 10% LOCUST BEAN GUM KEPT THE INCREASE IN LIVER CHOLESTEROL DOWN TO 100% (KRITCHEVSKY, 1982).
INDICATIONS (CAROB) — ASTHMA (F; BIB); BACTERIA (1; FNF); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CATARRH (F; BIB;
PNC); CELIAC (F; PH2); CHILDBIRTH (F; PH2); COLITIS (F; PH2); COUGH (F; BIB; HHB; PH2; WO2);
CRAMP (1; FNF); DEHYDRATION (F; WO2); DIABETES (1; FNF; LAF; WO2); DIARRHEA (2; DAW; FNF;
HHB; SKY); DYSPEPSIA (2; FNF; SKY; WO2); ENTEROSIS (F; PH2); HEARTBURN (1; SKY); HIGH
CHOLESTEROL (1; BIB; FNF; LAF); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1; LAF); HYPERPERISTALSIS (F; WO2); INDURATION
(F; JLH); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); OBESITY (1; LAF); SPRUE (F; PH2); STEATORRHEA (F; HHB); VOICE
(F; PNC); VOMITING (F; PH2); WART (F; JLH).
CAROB FOR DIARRHEA:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; BENZOIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LIGNIN; MYRICETIN;
PYROGALLOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIDIARRHEIC: LIGNIN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISPASMODIC: FERULIC-ACID; PHLOROGLUCINOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LIGNIN; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID
• CANDIDICIDE: FERULIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; PYROGALLOL; QUERCETIN
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: (+)-CATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
CAROB FOR HIGH CHOLESTEROL:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIDIABETIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; MALTOSE; PINITOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; DELTA-5-AVENASTEROL; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID;
L-ALANINE; LIGNIN; MYRICETIN; PYROGALLOL; QUERCETIN
• CHOLAGOGUE: FERULIC-ACID
• CHOLERETIC: BENZOIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID
• DIURETIC: MYRICETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: (+)-CATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; LIGNIN
• HYPOLIPIDEMIC: FERULIC-ACID
• HYPOTENSIVE: QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (CAROB) — PRIMARILY CULTIVATED FOR ITS FRUIT (POD) AND SEEDS, BOTH ARE HIGH IN
SUGAR AND CALCIUM CONTENT AND LOW IN PROTEIN AND FATS. CAROB SEEDS ARE SAID TO BE THE ANCIENT
AND ORIGINAL WEIGHT USED BY GOLDSMITHS, INSTITUTED EARLY AS THE CARAT WEIGHT. THE FRUIT, SOURCE
OF FOOD FOR THE POOR IN JEWISH FOLKLORE, ALSO APPEARS IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION AS “ST. JOHN’S
BREAD,” EATEN BY ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST IN THE WILDERNESS. THE LOCUST FRUIT IS SPREAD OUT AND DRIED
AS FOOD, SUSTAINING FOR CATTLE AS WELL AS FOR PEOPLE. IN THE PRODIGAL SON STORY, THE YOUNGER SON
ASKED FOR HIS INHERITANCE, WHICH HE SPENT QUICKLY AND UNWISELY. WHEN HE HAD NO MONEY OR
FOOD LEFT, HE HIRED HIMSELF OUT AS A SWINE TENDER. AND SINCE HE HAD NO BREAD, HE LONGED TO EAT
THE CAROB PODS FED TO SWINE. THE PODS WERE SAID TO HAVE BEEN THE ONLY FOOD AVAILABLE FOR
CAVALRY HORSES IN WELLINGTON’S PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN AND IN ALLENBY’S CAMPAIGN IN OLD PALESTINE. IN THE U.K., THE PODS HAVE BEEN USED TO MAKE DOG BISCUITS. NOW CAROB HAS BEEN ELEVATED
FROM CATTLE, DOG, HORSE, AND SWINE FEED, TO HEALTH FOOD AS A CHOCOLATE SUBSTITUTE. IT IS ESPECIALLY
RECOMMENDED TO THOSE SENSITIVE TO CHOCOLATE. ON APRIL 25, 1982, IN BURTONSVILLE, MARYLAND,
CAROB-COATED WALNUTS SOLD FOR $2.89 A POUND, MORE FITTING FOR A PROFLIGATE SON. IN PALESTINE, A
MOLASSES NAMED “DIBS” IS PREPARED FROM THE RIPE FRUITS. IN CYPRUS, A BRITTLE CANDY KNOWN AS
“PASTELI” IS MADE FROM THE PODS. ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES HAVE BEEN MADE FROM INFUSIONS OF THE
POD, PROBABLY LIKE THE ALGAROBINYA I ENJOYED IN CUSCO, PERU, MADE FROM THE RELATED LEGUME,
PROSOPIS. MATTER OF FACT, I WELCOMED IN THE NEW YEAR 2000 WITH ALGAROBINYA AT MACHU PICCHU.
EACH HARVEST, ONE CAROB TREE MAY CARRY EIGHT HUNDRED POUNDS OF HUSKS. SEEDS ARE EQUAL TO
OTHER GRAINS IN NUTRITIVE VALUE. FROM THE GROUND ENDOSPERM, GUM IS MADE, KNOWN AS LOCUST
BEAN GUM, GUM TRAGON, TRAGASOL, CARUBIN, AND CAROB FLOUR. THE GUM HAS GREAT WATER-ABSORBING
QUALITIES AND MAKES AN EXCELLENT STABILIZER, USED IN MANY FOOD PRODUCTS [SUCH AS ICE CREAM,
PICKLES, SALAD DRESSINGS, AND SAUCES (FAC)], IN THE MANUFACTURE OF JELLIES, IN THE MANUFACTURE
OF PAPER, IN COSMETICS AND DRUGS, AND IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. THE PODS ARE OF EQUAL IMPORTANCE, BEING EVEN HIGHER IN SUGAR CONTENT THAN THE SEEDS, AND ARE POPULARLY USED IN FOODSTUFFS,
JUICES, AND FLOUR FOR BREAD AND MACARONI. THE SUGAR CAN BE EXTRACTED FROM THE PODS BY ALCOHOL,
AND THE MOLASSES OBTAINED AS A BY-PRODUCT CAN BE FERMENTED TO ETHANOL. ROAST SEEDS HAVE BEEN
USED AS A COFFEE SUBSTITUTE. WOOD IS HARD AND HEAVY AND IS USED LOCALLY TO MAKE FURNITURE AND
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WHEELS. BARK CONTAINS CA. 50% TANNIN. CAROB IS ALSO USED IN TEXTILE PRINTING, SYNTHETIC RESINS,
INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES. AMERICAN IMPORTS ARE MOSTLY USED IN TOBACCO FLAVORINGS, AND
COSMETICS.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (CAROB) — CAN BE PROPAGATED BY SEED, GRAFTING, OR CUTTINGS. SEEDS, REMOVED FROM
THE PODS SOON AFTER MATURITY, BEFORE HARDENING, ARE MIXED WITH COARSE SAND AND KEPT MOIST IN
A GREENHOUSE OR BETWEEN LAYERS OF STERILIZED SACKING OR BURLAP. WHEN THEY START SWELLING THEY
ARE PLANTED IN A PROPAGATING BED, COMPOSED OF CLAY ROLLED AND PACKED HARD, UPON WHICH THE
SEEDS ARE PLACED AND COVERED LIGHTLY WITH SAND AND GOOD SOIL TO THE DEPTH OF 1.2 CM. WHEN
SEEDLINGS SHOW TWO SETS OF LEAVES, THEY ARE TRANSFERRED TO 6.5 CM POTS WITH CLAY SOIL, THE
TRANSPLANTS BEING ALLOWED TO STAND 24 HR WITHOUT WATER. THEN THEY ARE WATERED FREELY. WHEN CA.
12–15 CM HIGH, THEY ARE TRANSFERRED TO GOOD POTTING SOIL IN ONE-GALLON CANS OR BOXES 15 × 20
× 20 CM. WHEN 1–1.8 M TALL, SAPLINGS ARE OUTPLANTED 7 M EACH WAY IN POOR ROCKY SOIL, OR 12–14
M EACH WAY IN GOOD FERTILE SOIL. ON HILLSIDES, THE TREES CAN BEST BE SET IN TERRACES CONSTRUCTED
ON THE CONTOUR. SEEDLINGS ARE SLOW BEARERS, AND SEX IS INDETERMINABLE FOR A LONG TIME; HENCE,
BUDDING OR GRAFTING ON KNOWN STOCKS IS BETTER. CUTTINGS MAY BE STARTED WITH BOTTOM HEAT, CAREFUL
TREATMENT, AND HORMONES. GRAFTING THE THIRD YEAR IS BEST, ONLY ONTO THE HEALTHIEST PLANTS. IT SEEMS
BEST TO GRAFT ONTO THE BRANCHES, NOT THE STEM, LEAVING THE SMALLER BRANCHES TO UTILIZE THE WINTER
DEPOSIT OF SAP. SUCH BRANCHES MAY BE CUT OFF THE FOLLOWING YEAR. SEEDLINGS MAY BE BUDDED THE
SECOND YEAR IN THE FIELD WHEN THE STALK IS ABOUT 0.8 CM IN DIAMETER. THE TREE IS USUALLY GROWN
AS A RAIN-FED CROP, BUT IRRIGATED CROPS BEAR BETTER. SHALLOW CULTIVATION CAN DISTURB THE ROOTS.
HENCE, CULTIVATION IS NOT RECOMMENDED. OIL OR CHEMICAL HERBICIDES MAY BE USED TO CONTROL
INSECT PROBLEMS AND WEEDS (LEG).
CHEMISTRY (CAROB) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CAROB. FOR A COMPLETE
LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE
AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ARGININE — ANTIDIABETIC?; ANTIENCEPHALOPATHIC; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIINFERTILITY 4 G/DAY; ANTIOXIDANT?; APHRODISIAC 3 G/DAY; DIURETIC; HYPOAMMONEMIC; PITUITARY-STIMULANT; SPERMIGENIC 4 G/DAY.
GALLIC-ACID — ACE-INHIBITOR; ANALGESIC; ANTIADENOVIRUS; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 1000 ΜG/ML; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICANCER; ANTICARCINOMIC ED50 = 3;
ANTIESCHERICHIC; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC; ANTIFLU; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC EC50 = >10 ΜG/ML; ANTIHIV; ANTIIFLAMMATORY; ANTILEISHMANIC EC50 = 4.4 ΜG/ML; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC44 = 33 PPM; ANTIPEROXIDANT IC50 = 69 ΜM; ANTIPOLIO; ANTIOXIDANT (7 × QUERCETIN);
ANTIRADICULAR (7 × QUERCETIN); ANTISEPTIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC MIC = 1000 ΜG/ML; ANTITUMOR; ANTIVIRAL; APOPTOTIC; ASTRINGENT; BACTERISTAT; BRONCHODILATOR; CANDIDICIDE; CARCINOGENIC; CHOLERETIC;
CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; FLORAL-INHIBITOR; GRAM(–)ICIDE MIC = 1000 ΜG/ML; GRAM(+)ICIDE MIC
= 1000 ΜG/ML; HEMOSTAT; IMMUNOMODULATOR; IMMUNOSUPPRESSANT; INSULIN-SPARER; MYORELAXANT;
NEPHROTOXIC; STYPTIC; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 24 ΜM; LD50
= 5000 ORL RBT; LD50 = 4500 SCU RAT.
GLUTAMIC-ACID — ADI = 120 MG/KG, 5–12/G/MAN/DAY; ANTALKALI? 500–1000 MG/DAY/ORL/MAN; ANTIEPILEPTIC; ANTILITHIC; ANTIPROSTATITIC 125–250 MG 3 × DAY; ANTIRETARDATION; ANXIOLYTIC; HYPOAMMONEMIC; NEUROTOXIC.
LINOLEIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTICANCER; ANTICORONARY; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC; ANTIGRANULAR; ANTIHISTAMINIC;
ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 = 31 ΜM; ANTIMENORRHAGIC; ANTI-MS; ANTIPROSTATITIC; CARCINOGENIC; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; IMMUNOMODULATORY; INSECTIFUGE;
METASTATIC; NEMATICIDE.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PECTIN — ANTIATHEROMIC 15 G/MAN/DAY; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIDIABETIC 10 G/MAN/DAY/ORL;
ANTIDIARRHEIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOBESITY; ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; DEMULCENT; FUNGICIDE; HEMOSTAT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC; PERISTALTIC; LDLO
= 1800 UNK MUS.
TYROSINE — ANTICANCER; ANTIDEPRESSANT?; ANTIENCEPHALOPATHIC; ANTIPARKINSONIAN 100 MG/KG DAY;
ANTIPHENYLKETONURIC; ANTIULCER 256 MG SCU, 400 MG/KG IPR RAT; MONOAMINE-PRECURSOR.
CINCHONA SP. (RUBIACEAE), C. PUBESCENS (VAHL), AND C. CALISAYA
(WEDD.), FORMERLY C. OFFICINALIS (AUCT.)
REDBARK QUININE, RED CINCHONA, AND YELLOWBARK QUININE, YELLOW CINCHONA
AS WITH CINNAMON AND CASSIA, I DOUBT MANY STUDIES ARE VOUCHERED AND HENCE DOUBT WHETHER ANYONE
KNOWS WHICH SPECIES THEY WERE STUDYING. LAMENTABLE BUT ALMOST ALWAYS TRUE.
MEDICINAL USES (CINCHONA) — REPORTEDLY ANALGESIC, ANESTHETIC, ANTIARRHYTHMIC, ANTIMALARIAL,
ANTIPERIODIC, ANTIPYRETIC, ASTRINGENT, BITTER, CONTRACEPTIVE, AND TONIC PROPERTIES. THE BARK AND/OR ITS
EXTRACTS ARE USED IN FOLK REMEDIES FOR CANCER CARCINOMATA, AND TUMORS. BARK IS USED AS A BITTER AND
STOMACHIC; IN SMALL DOSES, IT IS A MILD IRRITANT AND STIMULANT OF THE GASTRIC MUCOSA. POWDERED BARK
CAN BE USED AS A DENTIFRICE.
QUININE IS REPORTED TO BE ANESTHETIC, ANTIPERIODIC, ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, ASTRINGENT, CONTRACEPTIVE, INSECTICIDE, SCHIZONTICIDE, STOMACHIC, TONIC, AND UTEROTONIC. QUININE IS USED IN COLLYRIA AS AN
ANESTHETIC, ASTRINGENT, BACTERICIDAL EYEWASH. QUININE HAS BEEN USED TO TREAT HEMORRHOIDS AND VARICOSE VEINS. QUININE SULFATE IS USED TO TREAT COLDS AND LEG CRAMPS. QUININE AND MORESO QUINIDINE
REGULATE ATRIAL FIBRILLATION AND FLUTTER. QUINIDINE WILL SUPPRESS ABNORMAL RHYTHMS IN ANY HEART
CHAMBER. SERENDIPITOUSLY, MALARIA PATIENTS TREATED WITH CINCHONA BARK WERE FOUND TO BE FREE OF
ARRHYTHMIA. QUINIDINE, WITH ANTIARRHYTHMIC ACTIVITY, INCREASES THE ACTIVITY OF ANOTHER PLANT-DERIVED
COMPOUND, VINCRISTINE, THE ANTILEUKEMIC PRINCIPLE FROM THE MADAGASCAR PERIWINKLE. QUINIDINE IS
ALSO USED TO TREAT HICCUPS. IN 1973, 0.18% (2,758,000) OF ALL PRESCRIPTIONS IN THE U.S. (1.532 BILLION)
CONTAINED QUINIDINE. AS OFTEN ECHOED IN THE POPULAR PRESS, MORE THAN 25% OF ALL PRESCRIPTIONS
CONTAINED ONE OR MORE ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OR DERIVATIVES NOW OR ONCE OBTAINED FROM SEED PLANTS.
LATELY, THE SENIOR AUTHOR HAS ENJOYED A TRIPLE-ANTIMALARIAL GIN TONIC, WITH A SPRAY OF FOLIAGE OF
ARTEMISIA ANNUA, THE CHINESE “QINGHAO” WITH ANTIMALARIAL ARTEMISINE, TO COMMINGLE WITH THE JUNIPER
AND CINCHONA ANTIMALARIALS IN AN ATTRACTIVE AND TANTALIZING BEVERAGE “GIN HAO TONIC” (DAD). COLD
WATER INFUSIONS WILL NOT EXTRACT THE ANTIMALARIAL ALKALOIDS.
CINCHONIDINE, CINCHONINE, QUINIDINE, AND QUININE ARE SOME OF THE ANTIPYRETIC COMPOUNDS IN
THIS GROWING MEDICINE CHEST CALLED QUININE (MPI). FROM AN AMEBICIDAL POINT OF VIEW, COMPOUNDS
MODIFIED FROM QUININE AND QUINIDINE WERE NOT AS POTENT AS EMETINE AND DERIVATIVES. I MIGHT MIX
MY IPECAC AND QUININE IN AMAZONIA. CHLORO-9-DESOXY-QUININE AND QUINIDINE WERE LEAST ACTIVE WHILE
9-DESOXY-DIHYDRO DERIVATIVES SHOWED FAIR ACTIVITY. MORE COMPOUNDS WHICH SHOWED SLIGHT IN VITRO
ACTIVITY WERE ALSO ACTIVE IN VIVO, EXCEPTIONS BEING 9-DESOXY-DIHYDRO QUININE AND QUINIDINE WHICH
WERE ACTIVE IN VIVO (MPI). MORTON NOTES THAT A MIXTURE OF 59% QUININE AND UREA HYDROCHLORIDE IS
INJECTED AS A SCLEROSING AGENT FOR INTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS, HYDROCELE, VARICOSE VEINS, AND PLEURAL
VACITIES AFTER THORACOPLASTY. QUININE HAS RECENTLY PROVED ACTIVE AGAINST THE CAUSATIVE AGENT OF
“CHAGAS DISEASE,” TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI.
INDICATIONS (CINCHONA) — ADENOSIS (F; CRC; JLH); AGUE (F; FEL); ALCOHOLISM (1; PH2);
ALOPECIA (F; CRC); AMEBIASIS (1; CRC; FNF; WO2); ANEMIA (F; FEL; HHB; PH2); ANOREXIA
(2; KOM; PHR; PH2); ARRHYTHMIA (1; FNF; WO2); ARTHROSIS (F; 60P); ASTHMA (F; HHB);
BACTERIA (1; FNF; WO2); BLEEDING (1; HHB); CACHEXIA (F; FEL); CANCER (F; CRC; JLH; PHR;
PH2); CANCER, BREAST (F; CRC); CANCER, GLAND (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; CRC); CANCER,
MESENTERY (F; CRC); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; CRC); CARCINOMATA (F; CRC); CARDOPATHY (1; CRC;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FNF); CATARRH (F; MPI); CHILDBIRTH (F; FEL); CHILL (F; 60P); CHLOROSIS (F; FEL); COLD (1; CRC;
FNF; PNC; 60P); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; FEL); COUGH (F; WO2); CRAMP (1; CRC; PH2; PNC; 60P);
DEBILITY (F; FEL; GMH; PH2); DERMATOSIS (F; PH2); DIABETES (1; FNF; WO2); DIARRHEA (F;
CRC; PH2; 60P); DIPHTHERIA (F; FEL); DYSENTERY (1; CRC; FNF; MPI; WO2); DYSPEPSIA (2;
FEL; KOM; PHR; PH2; 60P); ELEPHANTIASIS (F; WO2); EMBOLISM (1; FNF); ERYSIPELAS (F; FEL);
FELONS (F; CRC; JLH); FEVER (1; CRC; FNF; JAD; PH2); FLU (1; CRC; FNF; PH2; PNC; WO2);
GAS (2; PHR; PH2); GASTROSIS (F; PHR); GONORRHEA (F; FEL); HANGOVER (F; CRC); HAY FEVER
(F; FEL; MPI); HEADACHE (F; FEL; WO2); HEART (1; FNF; MPG); HEMICRANIA (F; MPI); HEMORRHOID (1; CRC; WO2); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH); HERPES (1; FNF); HICCUP (F; CRC); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (1; WO2); HYDROCELE (F; CRC); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INFECTION (1; FNF; MPI);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; PH2); LUMBAGO (1; CRC; FNF); MALARIA (2; FNF; PHR; PH2; 60P);
METASTASIS (F; JLH); MYOSIS (F; FEL); MYOTONIA (1; WO2); NEURALGIA (F; CRC; FEL; HHB;
MPI; PH2); NEUROSIS (F; CRC; PH2); PAIN (1; FEL; FNF PH2); PALPITATION (1; MPG); PALUDISM
(F; 60P); PERTUSSIS (F; CRC; HHB; MPI); PILES (F; CRC); PINWORM (F; CRC; WO2); PNEUMONIA
(F; FEL; CRC; MPI); PYEMIA (F; MPI); RASH (F; PH2); RESPIROSIS (F; PH2); RHEUMATISM (F;
FEL; MPI); RHINOSIS (F; MPI); SCIATICA (1; CRC; FNF; PH2); SEPTICEMIA (F; CRC); SORE (F;
JLH; PHR; PH2); SORE THROAT (F; CRC; MPI); SPLENOMEGALY (F; PHR; PH2); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH;
MPI); STOMATOSIS (F; CRC); SUNSTROKE (F; FEL); TACHYCARDIA (1; 60P); TONSILOSIS (1; MPI);
TRACHOMA (F; FEL); TRYPANOSOMIASIS (1; FNF); TUMOR (F; CRC); TYPHOID (F; CRC; FEL); ULCER
(F; JLH); VARICOSIS (F; CRC; WO2); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WEN (F; JLH);
WOUND (F; PHR; PH2); YEAST (1; FNF).
CINCHONA FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINCHONINE
• ANTIARRHYTHMIC: HYDROQUINIDINE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUINIDINE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL: QUININE
• ANTIISCHEMIC: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALIZARIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTITACHYCARDIC: QUINIDINE
• BETA-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKER: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST: ALIZARIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHRYSAZIN
• CARDIOTONIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• DIURETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; AVICULARIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; (–)-EPICATECHIN
• HYPOTENSIVE: HYPEROSIDE; QUINIDINE
• SEDATIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• VASODILATOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
CINCHONA FOR MALARIA:
• AMEBICIDE: CINCHONAMINE; QUINIDINE; QUININE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALIZARIN; ALIZARIN-2-METHYL-ETHER; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PURPURIN-1-METHYL-ETHER; QUININE
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HYPEROSIDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUINOVIC-ACID
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIMALARIAL: CINCHONIDINE; CINCHONINE; DIHYDROQUINIDINE; HYDROQUINIDINE; QUINIDINE;
QUINIDINONE; QUININE
• ANTIPYRETIC: CINCHONIDINE; CINCHONINE; QUINIDINE; QUININE
• ANTISEPTIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• ANTITRYPANOSOMIC: QUININE
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINCHONAIN-III-B; CINCHONIDINE;
HYPEROSIDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: ALIZARIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• MDR-INHIBITOR: CINCHONINE; QUINIDINE
• PROTISTICIDE: QUININE
OTHER USES (CINCHONA) — QUININE INHIBITS MEAT DECAY AND YEAST FERMENTATION. CINCHONA EXTRACTS
IN HAIR TONICS ARE SAID TO PROMOTE AND STIMULATE HAIR GROWTH. QUININE AND CINCHONA EXTRACTS ARE
USED IN QUININE AND TONIC WATERS, BITTERS, AND LIQUEURS (UP TO 278 PPM RED CINCHONA EXTRACT IN
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES); ALSO IN BAKED GOODS, CANDIES, CONDIMENTS, FROZEN DAIRY DESSERTS, AND RELISHES.
RED CINCHONA BARK EXTRACTS ARE USED TO FLAVOR BAKED GOODS, BITTERS, CANDIES, CONDIMENTS, ICE CREAMS,
LIQUEURS (LIKE CAMPARI AND DUBONNET), AND RELISHES (FAC). CINCHONA BARKS APPROVED IN THE U.S.
FOR USE IN BEVERAGES ONLY, NOT TO EXCEED 83 PPM IN THE FINISHED BEVERAGE (§172.510; §172.575).
CINCHONA BARK IS STILL USED FOR TANNING AFTER EXTRACTION FOR ALKALOIDS (DAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CINCHONA) — CAN BE PROPAGATED BY SEED, CUTTINGS, OR GRAFTING, THE METHOD USED
DEPENDING UPON ECONOMIC FACTORS AND PURPOSE FOR WHICH PLANTS ARE DESIRED. FRESHLY HARVESTED
SEED GIVE 90–98% GERMINATION. SEED REMAIN VIABLE 5–48 MONTHS, DEPENDING ON STORAGE METHOD;
BEST STORED IN THE DARK AT 7–24ΟC AT 33–66% RELATIVE HUMIDITY. SEED ARE SMALL, ABOUT 2500/G.
SEEDS DO NOT GERMINATE IN DARKNESS, EVEN THOUGH ALL OTHER FACTORS ARE FAVORABLE. THEY REQUIRE
AN OPTIMAL LIGHT INTENSITY FOR GERMINATION BETWEEN 30–75 FOOTCANDLES FOR 6 HR DURING THE BRIGHTEST
PART OF THE DAY; OPTIMAL GERMINATION TEMPERATURE IS 24–29.5ΟC WITH A RAPID LOSS ABOVE THIS.
SEEDS PLANTED IN NURSERY IN RAISED BEDS WITH OVERHEAD PROTECTION FROM SUN AND RAIN. BEDS USUALLY
LOCATED ON LOWER SLOPES OF HILLS, NOT ON VALLEY BOTTOMS. IN PHILIPPINES, 2.5 G OF SEED SOWN PER
METER OF BED; IN UGANDA, 1.5 G/M OF BED. USE OF SPHAGNUM MOSS SEEMS TO PREVENT FUNGAL
DISEASE, BUT FOREST SOIL TOPPED WITH 2.5 CM OF SPHAGNUM WORKS WELL. SEEDLINGS ARE VERY
SUSCEPTIBLE TO DAMPING-OFF DISEASE. KEEP SEEDBEDS EVENLY MOIST AND SEEDS GERMINATE IN 3–4
WEEKS. SEEDLINGS ARE MOVED TO SHADED TRANSPLANT BEDS WHEN 5–7.5 CM TALL, AT ABOUT 4–6 MONTHS
OF AGE, WHERE THEY REMAIN UNTIL ABOUT 2 M TALL AND HAVE BECOME GRADUALLY ACCUSTOMED TO
SUNLIGHT. WHEN TREES HAVE REACHED PROPER HEIGHT, THEY ARE SIDE GRAFTED. IN PHILIPPINES, SEEDLINGS
ARE FIELD PLANTED WHEN 20–30 CM TALL; IN JAVA, THEY ARE SET OUT WHEN 45–60 CM TALL ABOUT 2
YEARS AFTER SEEDING. SEEDLINGS SHOULD BE MOVED WITH A BALL OF SOIL AND SET ABOUT 2 M APART,
SLIGHTLY DEEPER THAN IN SEEDBED; WATER TO SETTLE SOIL, AND THEN AS NEEDED. COVER CROPS SUCH AS
CROTALARIA AND CALOPOGONIUM SPP. MAY BE GROWN BETWEEN TREES. NOXIOUS WEEDS AND GRASSES
SHOULD BE REMOVED AS THEY APPEAR. KEEP WEED-FREE, PARTICULARLY IN SEEDLING STAGE. PLANTATION
SHOULD BE CLEARED TWICE A YEAR FOR FIRST 2–3 YEARS, THEN HOEING EACH TREE IS SUFFICIENT. ROGUE ALL
DISEASED AND POOR SEEDLINGS REGULARLY. USUALLY NO FERTILIZER IS NEEDED, ALTHOUGH BONE MEAL AT
RATE OF 30 G/M2 IS HELPFUL. IN GUATEMALA, COMPOSTED MANURE ADDED TO NURSERY BEDS BENEFITS
GROWTH, AS PLANTS REQUIRE RATHER HIGH LEVELS OF N FOR MORE RAPID GROWTH. WATERING MUST BE DONE
CAREFULLY TO AVOID WASHING SEED OUT OR ENCOURAGING DAMP-OFF DISEASE. IN THE ABSENCE OF RAIN,
WATERING IN FIELD IS NECESSARY, ESPECIALLY WHEN YOUNG TREES ARE FIRST SET OUT. CUTTINGS ARE TOO
SLOW AND UNCERTAIN FOR COMMERCIAL USE. GRAFTINGS ARE MADE DURING THE RAINY SEASON, BUT NOT
WHEN RAINS ARE PARTICULARLY HEAVY. ABOUT A YEAR AFTER GRAFTING, TREES MAY BE SET OUT IN A GROVE,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SPACED 1.4 M EACH WAY, WITH THE PLAN TO THIN THEM, THE ULTIMATE SPACING BEING ABOUT 2 M EACH
WAY. USUALLY, ROOTSTOCK OF C. PUBESCENS IS USED FOR GRAFTING (DAD). TREES BEGIN TO FLOWER AFTER
3–4 YEARS, AND SEED MAY BE TAKEN IN 4–5 YEARS ONWARD. THE ENTIRE PLANTATION SHOULD BE CUT BY
THE TIME TREES ARE 10–12 YEARS OLD. FOR SEED PRODUCTION, DIFFERENT SPECIES SHOULD BE ISOLATED
FROM EACH OTHER IN FOREST CLEARINGS OR SEPARATED BY A BELT OF TALL GROWING TREES. CAPSULES COLLECTED
BY HAND FROM TREES, USING BAMBOO LADDERS. MUST BE HARVESTED BEFORE CAPSULE SPLITS RELEASING
SEEDS, BUT SEED MUST BE WELL RIPENED. CAPSULES ARE SORTED, PUT INTO LINEN BAGS, AND TAKEN TO A
DARKENED ROOM FOR THRESHING. CAPSULES OPENED BY HAND OR GENTLY CRACKED WITH PESTLE AND MORTAR.
IN JAVA, A MECHANICAL WINNOWER WITH A SLOW CURRENT OF AIR IS FOUND SATISFACTORY. CINCHONA BARK
IS GATHERED DURING THE RAINY SEASON WHEN IT IS EASY TO REMOVE FROM TREE. SOMETIMES SOME BARK
IS SHAVED OFF, BEING CAREFUL NOT TO GIRDLE THE TREE. OFTEN THE ENTIRE TREE IS UPROOTED AND ALL THE
BARK USED  TRUNK, BRANCHES, AND ROOTS. THE PLANTATION IS THINNED THIS WAY AS THE TREES GROW.
IN JAVA, TREES ARE CUT INTO SHORT LENGTHS AND BARK REMOVED BY POUNDING WITH WOODEN MALLETS.
AFTER BEING DRIED IN THE SUN OR IN OVENS, BARK IS CRUSHED IN A MILL AND PACKED IN GUNNY SACKS.
FINE QUALITY BARK IS MARKETED AS QUILLS. IT IS OBTAINED FROM TREES THAT ACQUIRE A BUSH-LIKE GROWTH
BY BEING COPPICED CLOSE TO THE ROOTS. SPROUTS ARE CLIPPED AND STRIPPED OF BARK, WHICH, WHEN
DRIED, ASSUME THE FORM OF QUILLS. THESE ARE CAREFULLY PACKED AND SHIPPED IN BOXES (DAD).
MODERN PLANTATIONS OF GOOD TREES SHOULD YIELD BARK CONTAINING 10% OF QUININE OR MORE. AT 8
YEARS, A PLANTATION YIELDS FROM 500–600 KG/HA OF DRIED BARK, CAPABLE OF YIELDING CA. 31 KG OF
QUININE SULFATE. HIGHER YIELDS, 9–16 MT DRY BARK/HA, HAVE BEEN PROJECTED. GOOD TREES YIELD
ABOUT 1000 CAPSULES CONTAINING ABOUT 1000 SEEDS EACH. IN 1976, THE MAJOR PRODUCERS OF CINCHONA
WERE JAVA AND OTHER INDONESIAN AREAS, EASTERN SLOPE OF ANDES, AND GUATEMALA. INDIA CONSUMES
MOST OF WHAT IT RAISES. AROUND 1974, WORLD CONSUMPTION OF CINCHONA ALKALOIDS WAS ESTIMATED
AT 200–500 TONS, WHICH AT AN AVERAGE ALKALOID CONTENT OF 5% WOULD IMPLY 4000–10,000 TONS
BARK (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (CINCHONA) — THE BARK CONTAINS UP TO 16% (MOSTLY 6–10%) TOTAL QUINOLINE
ALKALOIDS (QUININE, QUINIDINE, CINCHONINE, CINCHONIDINE). OTHER ALKALOIDS INCLUDE EPIQUININE,
EPIQUINAMINE, HYDROQUINIDINE, HYDROQUININE, QUINAMINE, ETC. TANNINS, QUINOVIN, QUINIC ACID,
STARCH, RESIN, WAX, AND OTHER ITEMS ARE ALSO REPORTED. ACCORDING TO HAGER’S HANDBOOK CUSCAMINE, CUSCANOIDINE, HOMOCINCHONINE, JAVANINE, DICINCHONINE, DICINCHONININE, AND PERICINE ARE
DUBIOUS NAMES FROM THE OLD LITERATURE (HHB). THE HANDBOOK DEVOTES MORE THAN 20 FINE-PRINT
PAGES TO JUST THE ALKALOIDS OF CINCHONA. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND
IN CINCHONA. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CINCHONIDINE — ANTIFLU; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIMALARIAL 150–500 MG/MAN/4 × DAY; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTIVIRAL; LD50 = 206 (IPR RAT).
CINCHONINE — ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 125–180 ΜM; ANTIMALARIAL; LD50 = 152 IPR RAT; ANTIPYRETIC;
MDR-INHIBITOR 250 MG/KG IGS RAT.
QUINIDINE — AMEBICIDE IC50 = 16.6 ΜG/ML; ANTIARRHYTHMNIC 72 MG/KG IPR MUS; ANTICHOLINERGIC;
ANTIHICCUPS; ANTIMALARIAL 10 MG/KG/ORL/MAN/8 HR; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTITACHYCARDIC; ANTITUMOR; CARDIODEPRESSANT; DERMATITIGENIC; EMETIC; HYPOTENSIVE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE; LAXATIVE; MDR-INHIBITOR 100 ΜM; OXYTOCIC; LD50 = 190 IPR MUS; LD50 = 594 ORL MUS; LD50 = 1000 ORL RAT.
QUININE — ABORTIFACIENT; AMEBICIDE IC50 = 14.8 ΜG/ML; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTIDYSENTERIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFIBRILLATORY; ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL; ANTILUMBAGIC; ANTIMALARIAL IC50
= 0.18 ΜG/ML; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTINEURITIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISCIATIC; APERITIF; ASTRINGENT; CANDIDICIDE; CARDIODEPRESSANT; CYTOTOXIC IC50 = 183 ΜG/ML; DERMATITIGENIC; OXYTOCIC; PHOTOTOXIC; PROTISTICIDE; SPERMICIDE; STOMACHIC; TRYPANOSOMICIDE; LDLO = 8000 MG/MAN; LDLO = 300 ORL GPG.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CINNAMOMUM AROMATICUM NEES (LAURACEAE)
CASSIA, CASSIA BARK, CASSIA LIGNEA, CHINA JUNK CASSIA, CHINESE CASSIA,
CHINESE CINNAMON, SAIGON CINNAMON
SYNONYM — CINNAMOMUM CASSIA AUCT.
CINNAMON AND CASSIA ARE OFTEN COMBINED IN THE SPICE TRADE, SO WHO KNOWS WHICH HAS BEEN STUDIED
WHEN IT IS REDUCED TO POWDERED BARK.
MEDICINAL USES (CASSIA) — REGARDED AS ALEXETERIC, APERIENT, BALSAMIC, LACTAFUGE, STIMULANT, TONIC,
AND VERMICIDAL, CASSIA IS A FOLK REMEDY FOR ARTHRITIS, CHILLS, DIZZINESS, DYSMENORRHEA, GOITER, HEADACHE, JAUNDICE, LUMBAGO, MENORRHAGIA, NAUSEA, PHYMATA, POSTPARTUM, RHEUMATISM, AND SNAKEBITE.
PROLONGED USE OF CASSIA IS THOUGHT TO IMPROVE THE COMPLEXION, GIVING ONE A MORE YOUTHFUL ASPECT.
CONSTANT USE IS SAID (I’M NOT CONVINCED) TO PREVENT GRAY HAIR. THE BARK IS PREPARED AS A TEA FOR
EXCESSIVE SALIVATION. THE LEAVES ARE TAKEN INTERNALLY FOR RHEUMATISM. UNANI CONSIDER THE BARK
CARMINATIVE, EMMENAGOGUE, AND TONIC, USING IT FOR HEADACHE, INFLAMMATION, PILES, AND PREGNANCY.
THE BARK IS ANTISEPTIC, ASTRINGENT, AND CARMINATIVE, AND THE EO HAS DEMONSTRATED CARDIOVASCULAR,
HYPOTENSIVE, AND ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITIES. EXTRACTS ARE ANTIBACTERIAL AND FUNGICIDAL. THE BARK EXTRACTS
HAVE SHOWN ANESTHETIC (2% BARK SOLUTION ANESTHETIZING NERVE FIBER) AND ANTIALLERGIC ACTIVITY. BARK
IS A COMPONENT OF A CHINESE PROPRIETARY DRUG USED IN EPILEPSY AND WHERE SEDATIVE OR TRANQUILIZING
ACTIVITIES ARE NEEDED IN NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS (WO2).
THE AQUEOUS EXTRACTS PREVENT INCREASES IN URINARY PROTEIN LEVELS WHEN GIVEN ORALLY TO NEPHRITIC
RATS (WO2). ITS ANTIULCER ACTIVITY HAS BEEN COMPARED TO CIMETIDINE. SHARMA ET AL. (2001) PROVED
THAT CASSIA HAS ANTIMUTAGENIC ACTIVITY AGAINST TWO MUTAGENS, VIZ. BENZO[A]PYRENE (B[A]P) AND
CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE (CP). THE ANTIMUTAGENIC POTENTIAL WAS PROBABLY DUE TO ITS EFFECTS ON XENOBIOTIC
BIOACTIVATION AND DETOXIFICATION PROCESSES (X11506812). TRANS-CINNAMALDEHYDE IS ANTIMUTAGENIC
IN ESCHERICHIA COLI.
TWO GLUCOSIDES, 2 EPICATECHIN DERIVATIVES, 2 CINNAMIC ALDEHYDE, 1,3-ACERALS, AND (DL)-SYRIGARESINOL IN THE BARK EXTRACT EXHIBITED ANTIALLERGIC ACTIVITY. CINNCASSIOL D4 AND CINNCASSIOL D4 GLUCOSIDE
FROM A BARK FRACTION ALSO EXHIBITED ANTIALLERGIC ACTIVITY. THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT SLIGHTLY INHIBITS THE
PRODUCTION OF HEMOLYTIC PLAQUE-FORMING CELLS, EVIDENTLY WITH AN ANTICOMPLEMENT ACTION, INHIBITING
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
COMPLEMENT-DEPENDENT ALLERGIC REACTIONS. THE MAJOR COMPONENT, CINNAMALDEHYDE, IS SEDATIVE AND
ANTIPYRETIC. THE EUGENOL FOUND IN THE OIL FROM THE BARK (12.5%) HAS AN ANTISEPTIC, IRRITANT, AND LOCAL
ANESTHETIC PROPERTIES, AS WELL AS WEAK TUMOR-PROMOTING ACTIVITY ON MOUSE SKIN. IT ENHANCES TRYPSIN
ACTIVITY IN VITRO. CASSIA CONTAINS THE ANTITUMOR (AND PROBABLY ONCOGENIC) AGENTS BENZALDEHYDE,
COUMARINS, AND TANNINS. THE BARK EO CONTAINED 70.5% CINNAMALDEHYDE AND 12.5% EUGENOL BUT
THE LEAF EO CONTAINED 92.2% BENZYL BENZOATE AND ONLY 4.2% CINNAMALDEHYDE.
INDICATIONS (CASSIA) — ALLERGY (1; FNF; WO2); AMENORRHEA (1; PH2; WO2); ANESTHETIC (1; WO2);
ANOREXIA (2; BGB; KOM; PH2); ASCITES (F; WO2); ASTHENIA (F; BGB); ASTHMA (1; BGB; WO2);
BACTERIA (1; BGB; FNF; LAF; PH2); BLOATING (2; BGB; KOM); BRONCHOSIS (1; BGB); CANCER (1;
CAN; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (F; JLH); CANCER, DIAPHRAGM (F; JLH); CANCER, KIDNEY (F; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (F; JLH); CANCER, RECTUM (F; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (F; JLH);
CANCER, UTERUS (F; JLH); CANCER, VAGINA (F; JLH); COLD (1; BGB; CAN; FNF); COLIC (1; BGB; CAN;
PH2); CONDYLOMA (F; JLH); CONSTIPATION (F; WO2); COUGH (F; BGB); CRAMP (1; BGB; CAN; FNF);
CYSTOSIS (F; JLH); DIAPHRAGMOSIS (F; JLH); DIARRHEA (1; BGB; CAN; FNF; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (2; BGB;
CAN; FNF; KOM; PH2); DYSURIA (F; WO2); EDEMA (F; WO2); ENTEROSIS (F; BGB; PH2; WO2);
ENURESIS (F; PH2); EPILEPSY (F; WO2); FATIGUE (F; PH2); FEVER (1; AHP; BGB; FNF; WO2); FLU (1;
FNF); FUNGUS (1; BGB; LAF; PH2); GAS (1; BGB; CAN; PH2; WO2); GASTROSIS (F; BGB; PH2;
WO2); GRAY HAIR (F; WO2); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH); HERNIA (F; PH2); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; WO2);
HIV (1; FNF); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; PH2); IMPOTENCE (F; PH2); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1;
BGB; FNF; LAF; PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); INSOMNIA (F; WO2); MENOPAUSE (F; PH2); MYCOSIS
(1; BGB; LAF; PH2); NEPHROSIS (1; BGB; WO2); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF; WO2); NEURALGIA (1; WO2);
NEURASTHENIA (F; PH2); OPHTHALMIA (1; WO2); ORCHOSIS (F; PH2); PAIN (1; FNF; WO2); PHARYNGOSIS
(F; WO2); SORE (F; JLH); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); TRACHEOSIS (1; WO2); TUMOR (1; CAN); ULCER (1; BGB;
CAN; FNF; PH2; WO2); URETHROSIS (F; WO2); UTEROSIS (F; WO2); VAGINOSIS (F; JLH); VIRUS (1; BGB;
FNF; LAF); VOMITING (1; CAN; PH2); WART (F; JLH); WATER RETENTION (F; WO2).
CASSIA FOR CANCER:
• ANTIEBV: (–)-EPICATECHIN; GERANIAL
• ANTIHIV: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; OPC; PROCYANIDINS
• ANTIADENOMIC: FARNESOL
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL; SAFROLE
• ANTIANDROGENIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE;
LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; MUCILAGE; OPC; SAFROLE; SALICYLIC-ACID;
TRANS-CINNAMALDEHYDE
• ANTIHYALURONIDASE: OPC; PROCYANIDINS
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; OPC; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTILEUKEMIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; FARNESOL
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: COUMARIN; FARNESOL
• ANTIMETASTATIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CINNAMYL-ALCOHOL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; TRANS-CINNAMALDEHYDE
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; OPC; PROCYANIDINS; SALICYLIC-ACID
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-BENZOATE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
OPC; P-CYMENE; PROCYANIDINS
• APOPTOTIC: FARNESOL
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: PROCYANIDINS
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: COUMARIN; LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; SAFROLE
• CYTOTOXIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL
• DNA-BINDER: METHYL-CHAVICOL; SAFROLE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; BENZALDEHYDE; COUMARIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: COUMARIN
• LYMPHOKINETIC: COUMARIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE
• REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• SUNSCREEN: OPC; PROCYANIDINS
CASSIA FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; P-CYMENE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; SAFROLE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; OPC; PROCYANIDINS; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE;
BENZOIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CUMINALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; GERANIAL; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; OPC; P-CYMENE; PROCYANIDINS; SAFROLE; SALICYLICACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: LINALOOL; OPC; PROCYANIDINS
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; OPC; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; OPC; PROCYANIDINS; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: BENZOIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; CRESOL;
EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GUAIACOL; HEXANOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-BENZOATE; METHYLEUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; O-METHOXYCINNAMALDEHYDE; OPC; PROCYANIDINS; SAFROLE; SALICYLIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
OPC; P-CYMENE; PROCYANIDINS
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE;
LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; BENZALDEHYDE; COUMARIN
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: (+)-CATECHIN; COUMARIN
CASSIA FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; P-CYMENE; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; SAFROLE
• ANTIGASTRITIC: OPC; PROCYANIDINS
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; OPC; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; OPC; PROCYANIDINS; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEPTIC: BENZALDEHYDE
• ANTIULCER: (+)-CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIULCEROGENIC: MELILOTIC-ACID
• CARMINATIVE: EUGENOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; SAFROLE
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE;
COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FARNESOL; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE
OTHER USES (CASSIA) — OTHER THAN MEDICINES, THREE PRODUCTS ARE OBTAINED FROM CASSIA: (1) THE BARK,
EQUIVALENT AND INTERCHANGEABLE WITH CINNAMON, (2) OIL FROM BARK, LEAVES, OR TWIGS, AND (3) CASSIA
“BUDS,” WHICH ARE IN FACT DRIED UNRIPE FRUITS. THESE DRIED GREEN FRUITS ARE THE CASSIA “BUDS” OF
COMMERCE, WHICH RATHER RESEMBLE CLOVES. TRUE CLOVES ARE IN FACT ALSO FLOWER BUDS, UNOPENED BUDS IN
THE TIGHTLY FITTED CALYX. CASSIA BARK IS AN IMPORTANT SPICE. EXODUS SUGGESTS THAT CASSIA AND CINNAMON,
AS DISTINCT SPICES, WERE BOTH INCORPORATED IN BIBLICAL HOLY OIL (EXODUS 30:23–25). CASSIA IS ESSENTIALLY
EQUIVALENT TO CINNAMON AS MEDICINE AND SPICE, AND THE TWO ARE AGGREGATED IN THE SPICE TRADE. ARNDT
(1999) LAMENTS THAT AGGREGATING THE TWO IN THE U.S. SPICE TRADE (AND MANY OTHER PLACES) DENIES US A
USEFUL REFINEMENT IN FLAVORING OUR FOODS; SOME DISHES ARE BETTER WITH CASSIA, OTHERS WITH CINNAMON.
ARNDT (1999) SAYS CASSIA, NOT CINNAMON, IS THE AUTHENTIC FLAVOR FOR DISHES IN BURMA, CHINA, INDONESIA,
KOREA, MALAYSIA, AND VIETNAM. SHE SPECULATES THAT THIS IS WHY IT IS CALLED “CHINESE CINNAMON,” AND
WHY IT IS ONE OF THE INGREDIENTS IN CHINESE FIVE-SPICE. ARNDT (1999) TELLS US HOW TO DISTINGUISH CASSIA
AND CINNAMON. GROUND CASSIA BARK IS DARKER AND REDDER BROWN THAN THE MEDIUM TAN GROUND CINNAMON.
THE BARK IN CASSIA STICKS IS THICKER THAN THAT IN CINNAMON STICKS. CASSIA STICKS USUALLY CONSIST OF A
SINGLE PIECE ROLLED INWARD FROM BOTH ENDS; CINNAMON STICKS MAY BE MULTIPLE LAYERS ROLLED AROUND EACH
OTHER IN “QUILLS.” IF YOUR SAMPLE IS NOT TOO OLD, CHEWED CASSIA DOES NOT GIVE YOU A GELATINOUS OR
SLIPPERY FEEL IN THE MOUTH; CINNAMON DOES (AAR). STICKS (CASSIA OR CINNAMON) ARE PREFERABLE TO
GROUND SPICE IN ANY SIMMERINGS, IN CHOCOLATE, COCOA, OR COFFEE, MULLED CIDERS AND WINES, FRUIT SYRUPS,
AND CUSTARD CREAMS (AAR). CASSIA IS USED IN SPICE BLENDS AND PICKLING SPICES (WHERE CRACKED CINNAMON
IS USED) AND TO FLAVOR BAKED GOODS, CANDY (EVEN CHOCOLATES), CURRY POWDERS, FRUIT DISHES, PICKLES,
SAUCES. THE BARK, AND AN EO DERIVED THEREFROM, ARE USED TO FLAVOR BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, CHEWING
GUM, CONDIMENTS, CONFECTIONARIES, AND CURRIES. THE CASSIA “BUDS” ARE USED IN FLAVORING BREADS, CAKES,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CHOCOLATE, AND PICKLES (FAC). IN CHINESE COOKING, CASSIA IS OFTEN USED WITH MEATS, ESPECIALLY PORK,
EVEN MARBLED CHINESE TEA EGGS. THE BARK, AND PROBABLY ALL PLANT PARTS, CONTAINS CINNAMALDEHYDE, A
BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUND, WHICH IS DISTILLED FOR EXPORT. OIL OF CASSIA CAN BE DISTILLED FROM THE
LEAVES, CHIPS OF WOOD, AND BARK. THE OIL IS ALSO USED AS A NATURAL DISINFECTANT. THOUGH THE MAIN USE
OF CASSIA BARK IS CULINARY IN THE WEST, ESPECIALLY IN FLAVORING PROCESSED FOODS, THE OIL ALSO FINDS ITS
WAY INTO CHINA’S “TIGER BALM” AND INTO SOAPS, PERFUMES, SPICE ESSENCES, AND BEVERAGES. QUILLS OF
CASSIA AND/OR CINNAMON CAN PERFUME YOUR DRAWERS; OR BOIL 1/2 TSP CASSIA IN 2 CUPS OF WATER IN THE
KITCHEN TO FRESHEN AROMAS THERE. (AFL, DAD, RIN, WO2).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CASSIA) — IN SOUTH CHINA, IT IS GROWN IN A MODERATELY COOL CLIMATE, ANNUAL RAINFALL
CA. 1200–1300 MM, ELEVATION MOSTLY 90–300 M, USUALLY PROPAGATED BY CUTTING BUT SOMETIMES
GROWN FROM SEED. YOUNG PLANTS MAY BE GROWN FROM SEED IN NURSERIES 20–25 CM APART; WHEN A FEW
CENTIMETERS TALL, ARE TRANSPLANTED TO THE FIELD, SPACED AT INTERVALS OF CA. 3 M APART EACH WAY. MORE
FREQUENTLY, CASSIA IS PROPAGATED FROM CUTTINGS. PLANT PRODUCES FLUSHES OF GROWTH, WITH 2–10 LEAVES
ON A BRANCH, LEAVES STANDING 1–2 CM APART AT MATURITY. PROPAGATION SHOULD BE DELAYED UNTIL LEAVES
OF A FLUSH ARE HORIZONTAL AND OF FIRM TEXTURE. ENTIRE FLUSH MAY BE USED OR TWO-NODE CUTTINGS WITH
BOTH LEAVES ATTACHED ARE ALSO VERY SATISFACTORY. ROOTING CHEMICALS INDUCE MORE AND LARGER ROOTS PER
CUTTING; ROOTING TAKES PLACE WITHIN 2–4 MONTHS; USUALLY 2–4 MONTHS WITH MIST PROPAGATION AND
ABOUT 27°C BOTTOM HEAT. SOME CUTTINGS TAKE LONGER BUT EVENTUALLY ROOT. ROOTED CUTTINGS SHOULD BE
POTTED IN A CLEAN MEDIUM SUCH AS PEAT OR SPHAGNUM. STERILIZED SOIL MAY BE USED IF CARE IS TAKEN
TO AVOID PUDDLING. ONLY THE UPPERMOST AXILLARY BUD SHOULD BE PLANTED SO THAT IT IS EXPOSED TO FULL
LIGHT. CUTTINGS ROOTED BY MIST PROPAGATION SHOULD BE CONDITIONED TO DRIER CONDITIONS AFTER POTTING.
REDUCED MISTING OVER A 2 WEEK PERIOD IS USUALLY SUFFICIENT. KEEP FREE OF WEEDS. CARE MUST BE GIVEN
TO YOUNG, TENDER GROWTH TO AVOID LEAF DAMAGE, DRYING WINDS, CHEMICAL SPRAYS, DRY SOIL, WILTING,
AND ROUGH HANDING. CALLUS FORMATION OCCURS READILY ON MOST CUTTINGS AND USUALLY PRECEDES ROOTING.
IF, AFTER L YEAR, NO ROOTS HAVE APPEARED, PART OF THE CALLUS SHOULD BE REMOVED AND THE AREA EXAMINED
FOR SIGNS OF ROOTS; ONE ROOT IS SUFFICIENT TO START THE CUTTING FOR NORMAL PLANT DEVELOPMENT. IN
HARVESTING, THE FRAGRANT INNER BARK IS PEELED FROM SLENDER CANES AND ROLLED LIKE A SCROLL, WITH BOTH
EDGES TOWARDS THE MIDDLE. BITS OF OUTER BARK MAY ADHERE. THESE SCROLLS OF CASSIA ARE SOLD AS
“CINNAMON STICKS” IN THE U.S. (AAR, DAD, WO2).
ONCE, OLDER TREES WERE DESTRUCTIVELY HARVESTED TO PRODUCE CASSIA OR CAMPHOR. THEN TIME OF
PLANTING TO HARVEST WAS CUT TO 10–15 YEARS. LATELY, TREES HAVE BEEN GROWN AS A COPPICED BUSH. AT
5–9 YEARS OF AGE, BUSHES ARE CUT OFF CLOSE TO THE GROUND, AND NEW SHOOTS SPRING UP FROM THE ROOTS,
SO PLANTATIONS MAY LAST INDEFINITELY. FROM MARCH TO MAY, CUTS ARE MADE IN THE BARK OF TREES AT LEAST
SIX YEARS OLD. BRANCHES ABOUT 3 CM THICK ARE CLEARED OF TWIGS AND LEAVES; TWO LONGITUDINAL SLITS ARE
THEN MADE AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL SLITS ARE MADE THROUGH THE BARK AT ABOUT 40 CM APART TO YIELD
SEMICYLINDRIC QUILLS ABOUT 40 CM LONG. THE BITTER-TASTING EPIDERMIS IS EXFOLIATED, BY PLANING OR
SCRAPING, AND THE QUILLS ARE DRIED IN THE SUN. THE BARK IS THEN DISTILLED TO EXTRACT CASSIA OIL. CASSIA
BUDS ARE GATHERED WHEN FRUITS ARE RIPE ON TREES 10 YEARS OR OLDER. AVERAGE TREES IN SUMATRA YIELD
8 KG OF BEST QUALITY BARK AND 3 KG EACH OF SECOND- AND THIRD-GRADE BARK. CINNAMALDEHYDE MAY BE
DISTILLED FROM THE BARK, WHICH YIELDS 0.3–0.8% EO, DOMINATED BY CINNAMALDEHYDE. CINNAMALDEHYDE
IS NOW ALSO PRODUCED SYNTHETICALLY ON A LARGE SCALE FROM COAL TAR BASES, PARTICULARLY TOLUOL. CASSIA
BUDS, WHICH CONTAIN THE FLESHY OVARIES, ESPECIALLY THOSE THAT ARE PLUMP AND FRESH WITH A FINE
CINNAMON FLAVOR AND FREE FROM STALKS AND DIRT, ARE THE BEST. IF THE BUDS ARE PACKED WITH THE BARK,
THE FLAVOR OF BOTH IS IMPROVED.
CHEMISTRY (CASSIA) — SEE ALSO CINNAMOMUM VERUM, WITH MANY OF THE SAME CHEMICALS. HERE ARE
A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CASSIA. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS
AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD)
AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CINCASSIOL-D4 — ANTIALLERGIC.
CINNAMALDEHYDE — SEE ALSO CINNAMOMUM VERUM.
CINNAMIC-ACID — SEE ALSO CINNAMOMUM VERUM.
TRANS-CINNAMALDEHYDE — SEE ALSO CINNAMOMUM VERUM.
CINNAMOMUM VERUM J. PRESL (LAURACEAE)
CEYLON CINNAMON, CINNAMON
SYNONYMS — CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM BLUME, LAURUS CINNAMOMUM L.
CINNAMON AND CASSIA ARE OFTEN COMBINED IN THE SPICE TRADE, SO WHO KNOWS WHICH HAS BEEN STUDIED
WHEN IT IS REDUCED TO POWDERED BARK.
MEDICINAL USES (CINNAMON) — WELL KNOWN FOR MILLENNIA, AND OFT MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE, CINNAMON
WAS REPORTEDLY ONE OF THE INGREDIENTS IN MOSES’ HOLY OINTMENT (LIBSTER, 2002). LIBSTER (2002) SUGGESTS
THAT CINNAMON TEA MIGHT BE USEFUL FOR ELDERLY BEDRIDDEN PATIENTS WITH COLD EXTREMITIES, OR IN PREPARING
SUCH A PATIENT FOR A RECUPERATIVE WALK, OR CAST REMOVAL FROM A FRACTURED EXTREMITY. REGARDED AS
ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, ASTRINGENT, BALSAMIC, CARMINATIVE, DIAPHORETIC, FUNGICIDE, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC, IT IS A FRAGRANT CORDIAL, USEFUL FOR WEAKNESS OF STOMACH AND DIARRHEA, CHECKING NAUSEA AND
VOMITING, AND USED IN OTHER MEDICINAL MIXTURES. POWDERED BARK IN WATER (OR EO, OR TIGER BALM
CONTAINING MANY OF THE SAME CHEMICALS) IS APPLIED TO THE TEMPLE IN HEADACHES AND NEURALGIA. CINNAMON
BARK PREVENTS PLATELET AGGLUTINATION AND SHOWS ANTITHROMBIC AND ANTITUMOR ACTIVITY. LEBANESE USE
CINNAMON AS A STIMULANT, FOR COLDS, RHEUMATISM, HALITOSIS, AND TO CHECK SLOBBERING IN YOUNG AND
ELDERLY PEOPLE. IT IS ALSO USED TO LOOSEN COUGHS. AYURVEDICS CONSIDER THE BARK APHRODISIAC AND TONIC,
USING IT FOR BILIOUSNESS, BRONCHITIS, DIARRHEA, ITCH, PARCHED MOUTH, WORMS, AND CARDIAC, RECTAL, AND
URINARY DISEASES. THEY USE THE OIL FOR “ERUCTATIONS,” GAS, LOSS OF APPETITE, NAUSEA, AND TOOTHACHE. UNANI
CONSIDER THE OIL CARMINATIVE, EMMENAGOGUE, AND TONIC TO THE LIVER, USING IT FOR ABDOMINAL PAINS,
BRONCHITIS, HEAD COLDS, AND INFLAMMATION. THEY CONSIDER THE BARK ALEXETERIC, APHRODISIAC, CARMINATIVE,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EXPECTORANT, SIALAGOGUE, AND TONIC, USING IT FOR GAS, HEADACHE, HICCUP, HYDROCELE, LIVER AILMENTS, PILES,
AND SCORPION STINGS. ONE OF OUR BELIZEAN ECOTOURISTS WAS COMPLAINING ABOUT A SNORING ROOMMATE.
FAMED BELIZEAN HERBALIST ROSITA ARUIGO SUGGESTS 1 CUP OF CINNAMON TEA WITH 2 TSP GRATED GINGER,
ADDING HONEY AND MILK TO TASTE. DRINK AT BEDTIME EACH NIGHT UNTIL CURED. SINCE I HAVE MENTIONED ONE
SPICY AYURVEDIC TRIAD, TRIKATU (GINGER, LONG PEPPER, AND PEPPER), I MAY AS WELL MENTION ANOTHER SPICY
TRIAD, TRIJATAKA [CARDAMOM, CINNAMON, AND “TEJAPATRA,” WHICH I AM TOLD IS CASSIA (UNIDENTIFIED IN DEP
AND WOI)], THREE MORE AROMATICS OFTEN USED TOGETHER FOR LENGUAL PARALYSIS, STOMACH CRAMPS, AND
TOOTHACHE (BIB, DAD, DEP, JLH, WOI, WO2).
IN MASSIVE DOSES, IT AIDED IN THE TREATMENT OF CANCER. IT HAS BEEN REGARDED AS A FOLK REMEDY FOR
INDURATIONS (OF SPLEEN, BREAST, UTERUS, LIVER, AND STOMACH) AND TUMORS (ESPECIALLY OF THE ABDOMEN,
LIVER, AND SINEWS). CINNAMON CONTAINS THE ANTITUMOR AGENT BENZALDEHYDE.
CINNAMON INVIGORATES THE BLOOD, HELPS REGULATE THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE, AND CHECKS FLOODING (WEED,
2002). THE USUAL DOSE IS A CUP OF CINNAMON TEA, 5–10 DROPS OF TINCTURE ONCE OR TWICE A DAY. CAUTIONING
HER READERS NOT TO USE STRAIGHT CINNAMON OIL INTERNALLY, SHE SUGGESTS A STRONG CINNAMON TEA OR USING
5–10 DROPS OF TINCTURE EVERY 15 MIN OR SO TO SLOW FLOODING AND RELIEVE UTERINE CRAMPING. BUT YOU CAN
CHEW ON A CINNAMON STICK OR SPRINKLE POWDERED CINNAMON ON TOAST OR TEA OR WHAT-HAVE-YOU. MOTHERS
ARE GIVEN HOT CINNAMON TEA, WITH GINGER AND CARAWAY, TO PREVENT BLOOD CLOTTING. CINNAMON IS USED AS
A STIMULANT OF THE UTERINE MUSCULAR FIBER IN MENORRHAGIA AND IN TEDIOUS LABOR DUE TO DEFECTIVE UTERINE
CONTRACTIONS. IT IS ALSO USED FOR CHILLS AND MENSTRUAL CRAMPS. AYURVEDICS CONSIDER THE BARK APHRODISIAC.
CINNAMON OIL IS ANTIFUNGAL, ANTIVIRAL, ANTIBACTERIAL, AND LARVICIDAL. THE CINNAMON LEAF OIL, DISTILLED
FROM DRIED GREEN LEAVES, IS A POWERFUL ANTISEPTIC AND IS ALSO USED IN PERFUMES, SPICES, AND IN THE
SYNTHESIS OF VANILLIN. THE EOS ARE ANTISEPTIC, THE ETHER-SOLUBLE FRACTION ANTIOXIDANT. LIBSTER (2002)
ALSO SUGGESTS EXPERIMENTATION WITH TOPICAL AND INTERNAL CINNAMON TEA FOR PATIENTS WITH CANDIDA.
CINNAMON KILLED BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999). VAPORS OF
SEVERAL EOS ARE ACTIVE AGAINST DERMATOPHYTES, LIKE TINEA AND TRICHOPHYTON. OF THOSE SEVEN STUDIED
BY INOUYE ET AL. (2001), CINNAMON WAS MOST POTENT, FOLLOWED BY LEMONGRASS, THYME, AND PERILLA (CHISO)
OILS, WHICH KILLED THE CONIDIA AND INHIBITED GERMINATION AND HYPHAL ELONGATION AT 1–4 ΜG/ML AIR.
EUGENOL IS ANTISEPTIC. AT A 0.1% CONCENTRATION, A LIQUID CO2 EXTRACTION OF CINNAMON BARK COMPLETELY
SUPPRESSED GROWTH OF CANDIDA, ESCHERICHIA, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS. LIBSTER (2002) REVIEWS CHINESE
STUDIES IN THE LAST DECADE WHERE THREE OF FIVE PATIENTS WITH ORAL HIV AND CANDIDA SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED
WITH COMMERCIAL CINNAMON LOZENGES. THE SCIENTISTS SPECULATED THAT IT IS IMPROBABLE THAT SYSTEMIC
CANDIDA CAN BE CHALLENGED, BUT THERAPEUTIC LEVELS CAN BE OBTAINED IN OROPHARYNX (LIBSTER, 2002).
USDA STUDIES SHOW THAT CINNAMON (CA. 1
/8 TSP) CAN TREBLE INSULIN EFFICIENCY AND MAY BE USEFUL
IN ADULT ONSET DIABETES (KHAN ET AL., 1990). BUT RECALL THAT HIKINO (1985) ASCRIBES HYPERGLYCEMIC
ACTIVITY TO THE LABILE AND VOLATILE CINNAMALDEHYDE, MAIN INGREDIENT OF THE CINNAMON.
INDICATIONS (CINNAMON) — AMENORRHEA (1; CRC; WHO; WO2); AMNESIA (F; ZUL); ANOREXIA (2;
CAN; KOM; PH2; WHO); ARTHROSIS (F; CRC); ASTHENIA (1; BGB); ASTHMA (F; CRC; LIB); BACILLUS
(1; X10548758); BACTERIA (1; FNF; WO2); BLEEDING (1; APA); BLOATING (1; BGB); BRONCHOSIS (2;
CRC; PHR); CANCER (F; CRC); CANCER, ABDOMEN (F; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (F; JLH); CANCER, BREAST
(F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (F; JLH); CANCER, DIAPHRAGM (F; JLH); CANCER, EAR (F; JLH); CANCER, GUM (F;
JLH); CANCER, KIDNEY (F; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; JLH); CANCER, MOUTH (F; JLH); CANCER, NECK (F; JLH);
CANCER, RECTUM (F; JLH; WO2); CANCER, SINUS (F; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (F;
JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (F; JLH); CANCER, VAGINA (F; JLH); CANDIDA (1; CRC; LIB); CARDIOPATHY (F; LIB);
CHILDBIRTH (F; LIB); CHILL (F; PHR; PH2); CHOLERA (1; CRC; WO2); COLD (2; CAN; FNF; PHR; ZUL);
COLIC (1; APA; CAN; TRA); CONDYLOMATA (F; JLH); CONGESTION (1; FNF); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; WHO);
CONVULSION (F; LIB); COUGH (2; CRC; FNF; PHR); CRAMP (1; APA; DEP; ZUL); DEBILITY (F; LIB);
DEPRESSION (F; LIB); DIARRHEA (1; DEP; PHR; TRA; WHO); DYSENTERY (F; CRC; DEP; WO2);
DYSMENORRHEA (1; APA; WHO); DYSPEPSIA (2; CAN; FNF; IED; KOM; PH2; WHO); DYSPNEA (F;
WHO); EARACHE (F; LIB); ENTEROSIS (1; JLH; WHO); ENTEROSPASM (2; KOM; WHO); ESCHERICHIA (1;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CRC; X10548758); EXHAUSTION (F; LIB); FEVER (2; AHP; FNF; PHR; TRA); FISTULA (F; CRC); FLU (1;
FNF; PHR; PH2); FRIGIDITY (F; LIB; WHO); FUNGUS (1; FNF; LIB; X10548758); GAS (2; APA; DEP;
KOM; TRA; WHO); GASTROSIS (F; DEP; WO2); GASTROSPASM (2; KOM); GINGIVOSIS (F; JLH); GLOSSOSIS
(F; DEP; WO2); GONORRHEA (F; LIB); HALITOSIS (F; PH2); HEADACHE (1; DEP; WO2; ZUL); HEART (F;
CRC); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (F; LIB; ZUL); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); IMPOTENCE (F; LIB; WHO); INFECTION (2; FNF; PHR; WO2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; LIB); LEUKEMIA (1;
TRA; WO2); LEUKORRHEA (F; WHO); LUMBAGO (F; CRC); LUNGS (F; CRC); LUPUS (F; LIB); LYMPHOMA
(1; WO2); MASTOSIS (F; JLH); MENORRHAGIA (F; CRC; LIB); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; ZUL); NAUSEA (1; CRC;
FNF; TRA; ZUL); NEPHROSIS (F; CRC; LIB); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEURALGIA (F; DEP; WHO; WO2);
OKETSU SYNDROME (F; LIB); OTOSIS (F; LIB); PAIN (1; FNF; WHO; WO2); PARALYSIS (F; DEP; WO2);
PHARYNGOSIS (2; PHR); PHTHISIS (F; CRC); PHYMATA (F; JLH); PROCTOSIS (F; CRC; JLH); PROLAPSE (F;
CRC); PSORIASIS (F; CRC); RHEUMATISM (F; APA; WHO; WO2; ZUL); SALMONELLA (1; WO2); SINUSOSIS
(F; JLH); SORE (F; JLH); SPASM (F; CRC); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; CRC); STOMATOSIS
(2; CRC; JLH; PHR); STRESS (F; LIB); SYNCOPE (F; WO2); TENSION (F; LIB); TOOTHACHE (F; DEP; PH2;
WHO); TUBERCULOSIS (F; LIB); TUMOR (F; CRC; JLH); TYPHOID (F; LIB); ULCER (1; WHO); VAGINOSIS
(F; CRC; JLH; WHO); VD (F; LIB); VIRUS (F; LIB); VOMITING (F; CRC; PH2); WART (F; CRC; JLH);
WEN (F; JLH); WORM (F; PHR; PH2); WOUND (F; PHR; PH2; WHO); YEAST (1; APA; WO2; X10548758).
CINNAMON FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; PHENOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CAMPHOR; CINNAMALDEHYDE;
CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; PHENOL;
SAFROLE
• ANTIEMETIC: CAMPHOR
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; DELTA3-CARENE; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; MANNITOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTIOXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MANNITOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHENOL;
PROANTHOCYANIDINS; VANILLIN
• ANTIPEPTIC: BENZALDEHYDE
• ANTIULCER: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIULCEROGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CARMINATIVE: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; SAFROLE
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL;
BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CITRONELLAL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FARNESOL; GERANIOL; GERANYL-ACETATE; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE
CINNAMON FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; PHENOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CAMPHOR; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; PHENOL; SAFROLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE;
BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CITRONELLAL;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CUMINALDEHYDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; EUGENOL; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; MYRCENE; NEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PHENOL; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL;
PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; DELTA3-CARENE; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; MANNITOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTILYMPHEDEMIC: COUMARIN
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CITRONELLAL; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; HEXANOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL; O-METHOXYCINNAMALDEHYDE; OXALIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE;
GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; PHENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; VANILLIN
• BACTERISTAT: COUMARIN; ISOEUGENOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; COUMARIN; CUMINALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; O-METHOXYCINNAMALDEHYDE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PHENOL; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE; VANILLIN
• FUNGISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; COUMARIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
P-COUMARIC-ACID
OTHER USES (CINNAMON) — IN BIBLICAL TIMES, SPICES LIKE CINNAMON WERE USED TO PREPARE INCENSE
AND HOLY OILS USED IN RELIGIOUS RITES, MEDICINES, AND PERFUMES. EXODUS SUGGESTS THAT CASSIA AND
CINNAMON, AS DISTINCT SPICES, WERE BOTH INCORPORATED IN BIBLICAL HOLY OIL (EXODUS 30:23–25). ARNDT
(1999) LAMENTS THAT AGGREGATING THE TWO IN THE U.S. SPICE TRADE (AND MANY OTHER PLACES) DENIES US
A USEFUL REFINEMENT IN FLAVORING OUR FOODS; SOME DISHES ARE BETTER WITH CASSIA, OTHERS WITH CINNAMON.
ARNDT TELLS US HOW TO DISTINGUISH CASSIA AND CINNAMON. GROUND CASSIA BARK IS DARKER AND REDDER
BROWN THAN THE MEDIUM TAN GROUND CINNAMON. THE BARK IN CASSIA STICKS IS THICKER THAN THAT IN
CINNAMON STICKS. CASSIA STICKS USUALLY CONSIST OF A SINGLE PIECE ROLLED INWARD FROM BOTH ENDS;
CINNAMON STICKS MAY BE MULTIPLE LAYERS ROLLED AROUND EACH OTHER IN “QUILLS.” IF YOUR SAMPLE IS NOT
TOO OLD, CHEWED CASSIA DOES NOT GIVE YOU A GELATINOUS OR SLIPPERY FEEL IN THE MOUTH; CINNAMON DOES
(AAR). THE BARK, AS THE CONDIMENT CINNAMON, IS USED IN FOOD, DENTIFRICES, INCENSES, AND PERFUMES.
THE BARK IS COMMONLY USED TO FLAVOR CURRIES, BUNS, ROLLS, APPLE BUTTER, PUDDINGS, BEVERAGES, ETC.
(FAC). EOS FROM THE BARK AND LEAVES ARE SIMILARLY USED. CINNAMON LEAVES ARE ONE OF THE INGREDIENTS
USED FOR FLAVORING JERKED PORK IN JAMAICA, WHERE THEY ARE ALSO USED IN PLACE OF CINNAMON BARK IN
PUDDINGS AND HOMINY DISHES. CINNAMON SUGAR, A FRAGRANT MIXTURE OF CINNAMON AND WHITE SUGAR, IS
A POPULAR TOPPING FOR FRENCH TOAST AND CAPPUCCINO (FAC). CINNAMON BARK OIL, DISTILLED FROM CHIPS
AND BARK OF INFERIOR QUALITY, IS USED IN FOODS, PERFUMES, SOAPS, CORDIALS, AND IN DRUG AND DENTAL
PREPARATIONS. EARLY EGYPTIANS APPARENTLY USED CINNAMON IN EMBALMING. FAT FROM THE FRUITS HAS BEEN
USED IN CANDLE MAKING. CINNAMON STICKS WERE ONCE USED TO STAKE VANILLA VINES AND SOME OF THE
STAKES TOOK ROOT.
RECENTLY, IT HAS BEEN SHOWN THAT COMPOUNDS FROM CINNAMON PREVENT STORED POTATOES FROM
SPROUTING, PROBABLY DUE TO AROMATIC ALDEHYDES, LIKE CINNAMALDEHYDE, DESTROYING THE POTATO EYE.
“THESE NATURAL SPROUTING INHIBITORS ALSO KILL A FUNGUS THAT CAUSES DRY ROT IN POTATOES…INCLUDING A
STRAIN THAT HAS BECOME RESISTANT TO FUNGICIDES” (BIB, DAD). NAKATANI (1994) NOTES THAT EOS OF
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CELERY, CINNAMON, CORIANDER, AND CUMIN ARE COMPARABLE TO SORBIC ACID AT PREVENTING THE SLIMY
SPOILAGE OF VIENNA SAUSAGE (NAKATANI, 1994, SPI).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CINNAMON) — CINNAMON IS PROPAGATED BY SEED, THREE-LEAVED CUTTINGS, LAYERING, AND
DIVISION OF OLD ROOTSTOCKS, THE LATTER RESULTING IN EARLIER HARVESTS. THE SHORT-LIVED SEED GERMINATE IN
2–3 WEEKS. PULP SHOULD BE REMOVED FROM SEED BEFORE PLANTING. SEED MAY BE PLANTED, FOUR OR FIVE TO
IN SITU SPOTS. THEY ARE PROBABLY BETTER PLANTED IN A NURSERY. SHADE, FURNISHED TO THE YOUNG SEEDLINGS,
IS REMOVED WHEN THEY ARE ABOUT 15 CM HIGH.AFTER ABOUT 4 MONTHS, SEEDLINGS TRANSPLANTED TO CONTAINERS.
FOUR MONTHS LATER, THEY ARE OUTPLANTED, SPACED CA. 2–3 M APART. WEEDS SHOULD BE REMOVED, PERHAPS
USED AS GREEN MANURE OR MULCH. AFTER ABOUT 2 YEARS, STEMS ARE CUT BACK CLOSE TO GROUND TO ENCOURAGE
COPPICE. FOUR TO SIX OF THE COPPICE SHOOTS ARE ALLOWED TO GROW ABOUT 2 MORE YEARS, PRUNING THEM TO
MAINTAIN STRAIGHT CANES. WHEN 2–3 M HIGH AND 2–5 CM IN DIAMETER, THESE CANES ARE HARVESTED. ONLY
A FEW CANES ARE TAKEN, A FULL CROP BEING MADE WHEN TREE IS 10 YEARS OLD, AFTER WHICH THE YIELD DIMINISHES
(DAD, WOI). TWO CROPS ARE TAKEN ANNUALLY, USUALLY IN MAY AND NOVEMBER, DEPENDING UPON RAINS.
BARK IS MORE EASILY SEPARATED FROM THE WOOD FOLLOWING THE FIRST RAIN. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL QUILLS OF BARK
ARE MANUALLY CUT. QUILLINGS ARE PIECES BROKEN OFF QUILLS IN HANDLING AND SHIPPING; FEATHERINGS ARE BARK
FROM TWIGS; CHIPS ARE SHAVINGS OF OUTER BARK SOMETIMES WITH ATTACHED BITS OF INNER BARK, AS HAPPENS
WHEN PEELING CROOKED CANES. QUILLS, QUILLINGS, AND FEATHERINGS, ALL TRUE GOOD CINNAMON, ARE EXPORTED
IN CYLINDRICAL BALES OF 100 LB NET, WHILE CHIPS ARE EXPORTED IN PRESSED CAKES OF 2–3 CWT. NET. QUILLS
ARE FERMENTED FOR 24 HR OR SO, AND THE EPIDERMIS AND GREEN CORTICAL TISSUES AND CORK SCRAPED OFF. AFTER
DRYING, QUILLS CONTRACT. THESE ARE ROLLED UP WITHIN EACH OTHER, FURTHER DRIED IN SHADE AND COMPACTED
BY ROLLING BY HAND DAILY. AFTER 4 OR 5 YEARS, FIRST CUTTINGS YIELD ABOUT 65 KG QUILLS/HA/YEAR, INCREASING
TO 200 KG/HA AND STARTING TO DECLINE AFTER ABOUT 10 YEARS. LARGE TREES, CA. 60 CM IN DIAMETER, MAY
YIELD 45 KG BARK. BUT ONE SHOULD NOT EXPECT YIELDS OF HIGHER THAN 600 KG EVERY FIVE YEARS. LEAF HARVEST
HAS BEEN ESTIMATED AT 1.9–2.5 MT/HA. LEAVES CONTAIN 0.6–0.8% EO.
CHEMISTRY (CINNAMON) — ORALLY, CINNAMALDEHYDE STIMULATES THE CNS AT LOW DOSES AND INHIBITS
IT AT HIGH DOSES. IT ACCELERATES RELEASE OF CATECHOLAMINES (MAINLY ADRENALINE) FROM THE ADRENAL GLANDS
INTO THE BLOOD.ACCORDING TO SAMBAIAH AND SRINIVASAN (1989), CINNAMON STIMULATED LIVER MICROSOMAL
CYTOCHROME P450 DEPENDENT ARYL HYDROXYLASE. OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF CINNAMON BARK OILS, THAT OF
C. VERUM MAY HAVE THE LARGEST AMOUNT OF EUGENOL. EUGENOL IS REPORTEDLY ABSENT IN CASSIA BARK OIL.
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CINNAMON. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CINNAMALDEHYDE — ADI = 700 ΜG/KG; ADRENERGIC; ALLELOCHEMIC IC100 = 2.5 MM; ANESTHETIC;
ANTIAGGREGANT 200 ΜM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC;
ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISALMONELLIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIULCER 500 MG/KG/ORL; ANTIUREASE;
ANTIVIRAL; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 16–40 PPM; CHOLERETIC 500 MG/KG/ORL; CHRONOTROPIC; CIRCULOSTIMULANT; CNS-DEPRESSANT; CNS-STIMULANT; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC ED50 5–60 ΜG/ML;
FUNGICIDE 1.7–250 PPM; MIC = 16–40 PPM; HERBICIDE; HISTAMINIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC; HYPOTENSIVE;
INOTROPIC; INSECTICIDE; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; MONOAMINERGIC; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE 100 ΜG/ML;
SEDATIVE; SPROUT-INHIBITOR; TERATOGENIC; TRANQUILIZER; TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR ID50 = 129 ΜG/ML;
VASODILATOR; LD50 = 2225 ORL MUS; LD50 = 610 IPR MUS; LD50 = 132 IVN MUS.
CINNAMIC-ACID — ANESTHETIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTISPASMODIC; CHOLERETIC; DERMATITIGENIC; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE; LAXATIVE; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; VERMIFUGE.
EUGENOL — SEE ALSO PIMENTA.
TRANS-CINNAMALDEHYDE — ALLELOCHEMIC (IC50 = 0.38 MM); ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; SWEETNER (50 × SUCROSE).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
COCOS NUCIFERA L. (ARECACEAE)
COCONUT, COCONUT PALM, COPRA, NARIYAL
MEDICINAL USES (COCONUT) — MOST OF US THINK OF COCONUT AS FOOD; FEWER THINK OF MEDICINE
OR SPICE. YET COCONUT WATER IS DIURETIC, AT LEAST IN DOGS (MPI), AND THE WATER IS ALSO REGARDED
AS APERIENT, COOLING, AND DEMULCENT. COCONUTS ARE USED IN FOLK REMEDIES FOR TUMORS (JLH).
REPORTED TO BE ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIDOTAL, ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, APERIENT, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT,
DEPURATIVE, DIURETIC, HEMOSTAT, PEDICULICIDE, LAXATIVE, STOMACHIC, STYPTIC, SUPPURATIVE, AND VERMIFUGE (NUT).
SOY INTERESTS HAVE MADE SATURATED TROPICAL FATS LOOK BAD, BUT DEROOS ET AL. (2001) SHOW THAT
INGESTION OF A SOLID FAT RICH IN LAURIC ACID GIVES A MORE FAVORABLE SERUM LIPID PROFILE IN HEALTHY MEN
AND WOMEN THAN CONSUMPTION OF A SOLID FAT RICH IN TRANS-FATTY ACIDS (PARTIALLY HYDROGENATED SOYBEAN
OIL RICH IN TRANS-FATTY ACIDS). SOLID FATS RICH IN LAURIC ACIDS APPEAR TO TRANS-FATS IN FOOD MANUFACTURING,
WHERE HARD FATS ARE INDISPENSABLE (X11160540). THE HEMICELULOSE FIBER (UNLIKE THE CELLULOSE)
DECREASED TOTAL CHOLESTEROL, LDL, VLDL WHILE INCREASING HDL.
COCONUT FIBER REDUCED MUTAGENIC AND CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF CHILE AND 1,2-DIMETHYLHYDRAZINE,
RESPECTIVELY (KHAN AND BALICK, 2001). AND OIL FROM THE SHELL HAS PROVEN ANTISEPTIC AGAINST ASPERGILLUS NIGER, CANDIDA ALBICANS, PENICILLIUM CHRYSOGENUM, RHIZOCTONIA BATATICOLA, R. SOLANI AND TRICHOPHYTON MENTAGROPHYTES (MPI).
INDICATIONS (COCONUT) — ABSCESS (F; DAD); ALACTEA (F; DAV); ALOPECIA (F; DAD); AMENORRHEA (F;
DAD); ASTHMA (F; DAD; DAV); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BLENNORRHAGIA (F; DAD); BRONCHOSIS (F; DAD;
PH2); BRUISE (F; DAD); BURN (F; DAD); CACHEXIA (F; DAD); CALCULUS (F; DAD); CANCER (1; FNF;
JLH; PH2); CANCER, BREAST (1; DAV); CANCER, COLON (1; JAC7:405); CANDIDA (1; FNF; JFM); CARIES
(F; WO2); CHILDBIRTH (F; DAV); COLD (F; DAD; PH2); CONSTIPATION (F; DAD); COUGH (F; DAD; PH2);
DEBILITY (F; DAD); DERMATOSIS (F; DAD; PH2); DIABETES (F; IED); DROPSY (F; DAD); DYSENTERY (F;
DAD; SKJ); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAD); DYSURIA (F; SKJ; WO2); EARACHE (F; DAD); ERYSIPELAS (F;
DAD); FEVER (F; DAD; SKJ); FLU (F; DAD); FUNGUS (1; FNF; MPI); GINGIVOSIS (F; DAD); GONORRHEA
(F; DAD); GRAY HAIR (F; PH2); HEADACHE (F; IED); HEMATEMESIS (F; DAD); HEMOPTYSIS (F; DAD);
HEPATOSIS (F; SKJ); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (F; IED); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; JAC7:405); IMPOTENCE (F;
DAD); INFECTION (1; FNF; MPI); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; PH2); JAUNDICE (F; DAD); MASTOSIS (F; JFM);
MENORRHAGIA (F; DAD); MISCARRIAGE (F; DAV); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; MPI); NAUSEA (F; DAD; IED); PARASITE
(F; IED); PHARYNGOSIS (F; PH2); PHTHISIS (F; DAD); PREGNANCY (F; DAD); RASH (F; DAD); SCABIES (F;
DAD); SCURVY (F; DAD); SORE (F; PH2); SORE THROAT (F; DAD; PH2); SWELLING (F; DAD); SYPHILIS (F;
DAD); TOOTHACHE (F; DAD; JFM); TUBERCULOSIS (1; DAD; MPI); TUMOR (1; DAD; FNF); TYPHOID (F;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DAD); UTEROSIS (F; SKJ); VD (F; DAD; JFM); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; SKJ); WATER RETENTION
(1; FNF); WORM (F; IED); WOUND (F; DAD); YEAST (1; JFM; MPI).
COCONUT FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: LIGNIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: FERULIC-ACID; LIGUSTRAZINE; MENTHOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LIMONENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXYBENZOIC-ACID; SQUALENE; SYRINGALDEHYDE; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; MENTHOL; NHENTRIACONTANE; SALICYLATES; SYRINGALDEHYDE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; N-NONACOSANE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: FERULIC-ACID; LIGNIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: FERULIC-ACID; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL; LIGNIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; SQUALENE; SYRINGALDEHYDE; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ANTISTRESS: GABA
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-AMYRIN; FERULIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LIMONENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SQUALENE; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LIMONENE; VANILLIN
• ANXIOLYTIC: GABA
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE; SQUALENE
• CYTOTOXIC: ALPHA-AMYRIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: FERULIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: FERULIC-ACID; SQUALENE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: P-COUMARIC-ACID; SQUALENE
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• SUNSCREEN: FERULIC-ACID; SQUALENE
COCONUT FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; MENTHOL
• ANESTHETIC: MENTHOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LIMONENE;
MENTHOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; SQUALENE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: ALPHA-AMYRIN; BETA-AMYRIN; SYRINGALDEHYDE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; MENTHOL; NHENTRIACONTANE; SALICYLATES; SYRINGALDEHYDE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; LIMONENE; MENTHOL
• ANTIVIRAL: FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LIGNIN; LIMONENE; VANILLIN
• BACTERISTAT: MALIC-ACID; N-HEXACOSANE
• FUNGICIDE: CAPRIC-ACID; CAPRYLIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; OCTANOIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYLLOQUINONE; VANILLIN
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: FERULIC-ACID; SQUALENE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: P-COUMARIC-ACID; SQUALENE
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER USES (COCONUT) — ONE OF THE 10 MOST USEFUL TREES IN THE WORLD, PROVIDING FOOD FOR MILLIONS
OF PEOPLE, ESPECIALLY IN THE TROPICS. IF THE TREE CAN BE SPARED, THE CABBAGE-LIKE HEART MAKES A TASTY
TREAT, A “MILLIONAIRE’S SALAD.” TERMINAL BUDS ARE EATEN RAW (FAC). INFLORESCENCES (FLOWER CLUSTERS)
ARE EATEN AS A VEGETABLE AND ARE A SOURCE OF SUGAR, VINEGAR, AND PALM WINE (FAC). FLOWERS PROVIDE
GOOD HONEY FOR BEES. A CLUMP OF UNOPENED FLOWERS MAY BE BRUISED AND “WEEP” SWEET JUICE, UP TO
A GALLON PER DAY. THE BROWN LIQUID IS BOILED DOWN TO SYRUP. LEFT STANDING, IT FERMENTS QUICKLY INTO
“TODDY.” AFTER A FEW WEEKS, IT BECOMES A VINEGAR. “ARRACK” IS THE DISTILLED FERMENTED “TODDY.” PITH
OF STEMS IS MADE INTO BREAD, ADDED TO SOUPS, FRIED OR PICKLED (FAC). SPROUTING SEEDS MAY BE EATEN
LIKE CELERY. ONE CV “NAWASI” IS SAID TO HAVE AN EDIBLE HUSK. COCONUT SPORT OR MAKAPUNO IS A
DELICACY THAT COMES FROM A CV WITH THE COCONUT WATER REPLACED BY A THICK CURD. COCONUT APPLE, A
SPONGY MASS THAT FORMS INSIDE A GERMINATING SEED, IS ANOTHER DELICACY. NUTMEAT OF IMMATURE
COCONUTS IS LIKE A CUSTARD IN FLAVOR AND CONSISTENCY (NUT). ARNDT (1999) SAYS, “THE VERSATILE COCONUT
PALM OFFERS ITS TRUNK FOR STRUCTURES AND UTENSILS, ITS FRONDS FOR THATCH, ITS FIBER FOR ROPES AND MATS,
AND ITS SEED AND SAP FOR A VARIETY OF NUTRITIOUS FOODS. FOR MANY PEOPLE, THIS IS TRULY THE TREE OF LIFE.”
COCONUT WATER IS USED AS A BRAISING LIQUID TO FLAVOR AND TENDERIZE MEATS, AND OCCASIONALLY TO ENRICH
THE LIQUID IN A STEW. TO MAKE COCONUT CHIPS, SLICE A PIECE OF COCONUT MEAT INTO VERY THIN STRIPS,
BAKE IN A SINGLE LAYER ON A COOKIE SHEET IN A LOW OVEN (ABOUT 200°F) CA. 1
/2 HOUR OR UNTIL THEY ARE
DEEP GOLDEN BROWN. SPRINKLE WITH SALT WHILE STILL HOT. SHREDDED OR GRATED COCONUT IS USED IN CAKES,
PIES, CANDIES, AND IN CURRIES AND SWEETS. MIXED WITH ORANGE SEGMENTS, SHREDDED COCONUT MAKES
AMBROSIA, A CHRISTMAS TREAT. TRY SUBSTITUTING GRATED COCONUT FOR BREAD CRUMBS IN YOUR MEATBALL
RECIPE. THESE ARE EVEN BETTER IF YOU ADD CORIANDER, TOASTED AND GROUND; CORIANDER MARRIES MOST
HAPPILY WITH THE COCONUT FLAVOR. COCONUT MILK IS OBTAINED BY POURING BOILING WATER OVER GRATED
FLESH AND LETTING IT SOAK UNTIL COOL. USE EQUAL VOLUMES OF GRATED NUT MEAT AND WATER. STRAIN, PRESSING
DOWN ON THE COCONUT. CARIBBEAN COOKS USE COCONUT WITH BANANAS, LIMES, MANGOES, PAPAYA, AND
PINEAPPLES. ANTIGUANS MIX GRATED COCONUT, GRATED SWEET POTATO, A BIT OF FLOUR AND SEASONINGS (SUGAR,
NUTMEG, AND VANILLA). THE MIXTURE IS WRAPPED IN A BANANA LEAF OR A SEA-GRAPE LEAF AND BOILED. THIS
DUMPLING-LIKE “DOUCANA” IS TRADITIONALLY SERVED WITH SALT FISH. “CRÈME DE COCO” OFTEN INDICATES A
MIX OF COCONUT MILK, COCONUT OIL, AND SUGAR, FOR PIÑA COLADAS AND OTHER TROPICAL COCKTAILS (AAR).
COOKED WITH RICE TO MAKE PANAMA’S FAMOUS “ARROZ CON COCO”; ALSO COOKED WITH TARO LEAVES OR
GAME AND USED IN COFFEE AS CREAM. ONTJOM, TEMPEH BONGREK, NATA DE COCO, AND DAGEH KELAPA ARE
FERMENTED PRODUCTS MADE FROM COCONUT. NATA DE COCO, OR COCONUT GEL, IS A COMMON INGREDIENT OF
HALO-HALO, A BOTTLED DESSERT THAT ALSO CONTAINS ADUKI BEANS AND SUGAR SYRUP (FAC). WHEN NUTS ARE
OPEN AND DRIED, MEAT BECOMES COPRA, WHICH IS PROCESSED FOR OIL, USED TO MAKE SOAPS, SHAMPOOS,
SHAVING CREAMS, TOOTHPASTE, LOTIONS, LUBRICANTS, HYDRAULIC FLUID, PAINTS, SYNTHETIC RUBBER, PLASTICS,
MARGARINE, AND IN ICE CREAM. LEAVES ARE SOMETIMES USED TO WRAP FOODS FOR COOKING (FAC). HINDUS
MAKE VEGETARIAN BUTTER, “GHEE,” FROM COCONUT OIL. COCONUT ROOTS PROVIDE A DYE; FRAYED OUT, IT MAKES
TOOTHBRUSHES; SCORCHED, IT IS USED AS COFFEE SUBSTITUTE (NUT). THE HUSK HAS A MASS OF PACKED FIBERS,
“COIR,” USED FOR MATTRESSES, UPHOLSTERY, AND LIFE PRESERVERS. COCONUT FIBER, RESISTANT TO SEA WATER, IS
USED FOR CABLES AND RIGGING ON SHIPS, FOR MAKING MATS, RUGS, BAGS, BROOMS, BRUSHES, AND OLIVE OIL
FILTERS, AND FOR FIRES AND MOSQUITO SMUDGES. CHARCOAL IS USED FOR COOKING FIRES.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (COCONUT) — NUTS ARE PLANTED RIGHT AWAY IN THE NURSERY OR STORED IN A COOL, DRY SHED.
SOIL SHOULD BE SANDY OR LIGHT LOAMY, FREE FROM WATER LOGGING, CLOSE TO SOURCE OF WATER, DEVOID OF
HEAVY SHADE. BEDS SHOULD BE DUG AND LOOSENED TO A DEPTH OF 30 CM. NUTS SPACED IN BEDS CA. 20 ×
30 CM; A HECTARE OF NURSERY ACCOMMODATING 100,000 SEED-NUTS. NUTS PLANTED HORIZONTALLY PRODUCE
BETTER SEEDLINGS THAN THOSE PLANTED VERTICALLY. ABOUT 15 WEEKS AFTER THE NUT IS PLANTED, THE SHOOT
APPEARS. AT ABOUT 30 WEEKS, WHEN THREE SEED-LEAVES HAVE DEVELOPED, SEEDLINGS SHOULD BE PLANTED
OUT. BEST SPACING 9–10 M ON THE SQUARE, PLANTING 70–150 TREES/HA. YOUNG PLANTATION SHOULD BE
FENCED TO PROTECT PLANTS FROM CATTLE, GOATS, AND OTHER WILD ANIMALS. DURING THE FIRST 3 YEARS, SEEDLINGS
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SHOULD BE WATERED DURING DROUGHT. COVER CROPS (CENTROSEMA PUBESCENS, CALOPOGONIUM
MUCUNOIDES, OR PUERARIA PHASEOLOIDES) ARE USED AND TURNED UNDER. CATCH-CROPS MAY BE USED. THERE
IS NO EVIDENCE THAT SALT IS BENEFICIAL, AS SOMETIMES CLAIMED. TREES BEGIN TO BEAR IN 5–6 YEARS, MORE
LIKELY 7–9 YEARS, REACH FULL BEARING IN 12–13 YEARS. FRUIT SET TO MATURITY IS 8–10 MONTHS; 12 MONTHS
FROM SETTING OF FEMALE FLOWERS. UNDER GOOD CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, A FULLY PRODUCTIVE PALM PRODUCES
12–16 BUNCHES OF COCONUTS PER YEAR, EACH BUNCH WITH 8–10 NUTS, OR 60–100 NUTS/TREE. NUTS MUST
BE HARVESTED FULLY RIPE FOR MAKING COPRA OR DESICCATED COCONUT. FOR COIR, THEY ARE PICKED ABOUT ONE
MONTH SHORT OF MATURITY SO THAT HUSKS WILL BE GREEN. COCONUTS ARE USUALLY PICKED BY HUMAN CLIMBERS
OR CUT BY KNIVES ATTACHED TO END OF LONG BAMBOO POLES, THIS BEING THE CHEAPEST METHOD. WITH A
POLE, A MAN CAN PICK FROM 250 PALMS IN A DAY; BY CLIMBING, ONLY 25. IN SOME AREAS, NUTS ARE
ALLOWED TO FALL NATURALLY AND COLLECTED REGULARLY. NUTS ARE HUSKED IN FIELD, A GOOD HUSKER HANDLING
2000 NUTS/DAY. THEN, NUT IS SPLIT (UP TO 10,000 NUTS/WORKING DAY). FOR COPRA, AN AVERAGE OF 6000
NUTS ARE REQUIRED FOR 1 TON; 1000 NUTS YIELD 500 LBS OR COPRA, WHICH YIELDS 250 LBS OF OIL. AVERAGE
COPRA YIELD IS 3–4 TONS/HA. THE U.S. ANNUALLY IMPORTS 190 MILLION LB OF COCONUT OIL AND MORE THAN
650 MILLION LB OF COPRA; SOME SOURCES STATE 300,000 TONS COPRA AND OVER 200,000 TONS COCONUT OIL
ANNUALLY (NUT). COPRA MAY BE CURED BY SUN-DRYING, OR BY KILN-DRYING, OR BY A COMBINATION OF
BOTH. SUN-DRYING REQUIRES 6–8 CONSECUTIVE DAYS OF GOOD BRIGHT SUNSHINE TO DRY MEAT WITHOUT ITS
SPOILING. DRYING REDUCES MOISTURE CONTENT FROM 50% TO BELOW 7%. COPRA IS STORED IN A WELL-VENTILATED, DRY AREA. EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM COPRA IS ONE OF THE OLDEST SEED-CRUSHING INDUSTRIES OF THE
WORLD. COCONUT CAKE IS USUALLY RETAINED TO FEED DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK. WHEN IT CONTAINS MUCH OIL, IT
IS NOT FED TO MILK COWS BUT IS USED AS FERTILIZER. EFFICIENT PRESSING WILL YIELD FROM 100 KG OF COPRA,
APPROXIMATELY 62.5 KG OF COCONUT OIL, AND 35 KG COCONUT CAKE, WHICH CONTAINS 7–10% OIL. DESICCATED COCONUT IS JUST THE WHITE MEAT; THE BROWN PART IS PEELED OFF. DRIED IN DRIERS SIMILAR TO THOSE
FOR TEA. GOOD DESICCATED COCONUT SHOULD BE WHITE IN COLOR, CRISP, WITH A FRESH NUTTY FLAVOR, AND
SHOULD CONTAIN LESS THAN 20% MOISTURE AND 68–72% OIL, THE EXTRACTED OIL CONTAINING LESS THAN 0.1%
OF FREE FOR OIL, YIELDING ABOUT 55%. THE RESULTING “POONAC” IS USED FOR FEEDING DRAUGHT CATTLE.
COCONUT FLOUR IS MADE FROM DESICCATED COCONUT WITH OIL REMOVED, AND THE RESIDUE DRIED AND GROUND.
HOWEVER, IT DOES NOT KEEP WELL. COIR FIBER OBTAINED FROM SLIGHTLY GREEN COCONUT HUSKS BY RETTING
IN SLIGHTLY SALINE WATER THAT IS CHANGED FREQUENTLY (REQUIRES UP TO 10 MONTHS); THEN, HUSKS ARE RINSED
WITH WATER AND FIBER SEPARATED BY BEATING WITH WOODEN MALLETS. AFTER DRYING, THE FIBER IS CLEANED
AND GRADED. GREATER PART OF COIR PRODUCED IN INDIA IS SPUN INTO YARN, A COTTAGE INDUSTRY, AND THEN
USED FOR RUGS AND ROPES. IN SRI LANKA, MOST COIR CONSISTS OF MECHANICALLY SEPARATED MATTRESS AND
BRISTLE FIBER. TO PRODUCE THIS, HUSKS ARE SOAKED OR RETTED FOR 1–4 WEEKS AND THEN CRUSHED BETWEEN
IRON ROLLERS BEFORE FIBERS ARE SEPARATED. BRISTLE FIBERS ARE 20–30 CM LONG; ANYTHING SHORTER IS SOLD
AS SUPERIOR MATTRESS FIBER. IN SOME AREAS, DRY MILLING OF HUSKS, WITHOUT RETTING, IS CARRIED ON AND
PRODUCES ONLY MATTRESS FIBER. FOR COIR, 1000 HUSKS YIELD ABOUT 80 KG PER YEAR, GIVING ABOUT 25 KG
OF BRISTLE FIBER AND 55 KG OF MATTRESS FIBER. THE SEPARATED PITH, CALLED BAST OR DUST, IS USED AS
FERTILIZER, SINCE THE POTASH IS NOT LEACHED OUT. COCONUTS MAY BE STORED AT TEMPERATURE OF 0–1.5ΟC
WITH RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF 75% OR LESS FOR 1–2 MONTHS. IN STORAGE, THEY ARE SUBJECT TO LOSS IN WEIGHT,
DRYING UP OF NUT MILK, AND MOLD. THEY MAY BE HELD FOR 2 WEEKS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE WITHOUT
SERIOUS LOSS.
CHEMISTRY (COCONUT) — IN THE CRC HANDBOOK OF PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS, COCONUT TOWERS ABOVE
THE OTHER ENTRIES FOR LAURIC ACID, ATTAINING 36%, ON A CALCULATED DRY WEIGHT BASIS, FOLLOWED BY UCHUBA
(VIROLA) AT 11.5, BETEL NUT AT 9.0, DATEPALM AT 5.4, CALENDULA AT 1.8, MACADAM AT 1.1, CANTALOUPE SEED
AT 0.9, CASHEW AT 0.8, GINGER AT 0.4, WATER MELON SEED AT 0.3, AND MACE AND THYME AT 0.2%, ON A
ROUNDED AND CALCULATED ZMB. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN COCONUT. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM,
DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL — ANTICANCER; ANTICONVULSANT SYNERGEN; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT (5 × QUERCETIN); ANTIRADICULAR (5 × QUERCETIN); ANTITUMOR; RDA = 3–12 MG/DAY.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
LAURIC-ACID — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIVIRAL.
MONOLAURIN—ANTIADENOMIC ED50 = 23 ΜG/ML; ANTIPLAQUE; ANTITUMOR (KIDNEY) ED50 = 4 ΜG/ML;
ANTITUMOR (PANCREAS) ED50 = 2 ΜG/ML; ANTITUMOR (PROSTATE) ED50 = 23 ΜG/ML; ARTEMICIDE LC50
= 79 ΜG/ML; CARIOATATIC X6963883.
TOCOPHEROL — ADI = 2 MG/KG; ANALGESIC 100 IU 3 × DAY; ANTIAGING; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALZHEIMERAN
2000 IU; ANTIANGINAL 1067 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICANCER; ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTICATARACT; ANTICHOREA; ANTICORONARY 100–200 IU/DAY; ANTIDECUBITIC; ANTIDERMATITIC;
ANTIDIABETIC 600–1200 MG/DAY; ANTIDYSMENORRHEIC; ANTIEPITHELEOMIC; ANTIFIBROSITIC; ANTIGLYCOSATION; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIISCHAEMIC; ANTILEUKEMIC 100–250 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENIC;
ANTILITHIC 600 MG/DAY; ANTILUPUS; ANTIMASTALGIC; ANTIMD; ANTIMS; ANTIMYOCLONIC; ANTINEURITIC;
ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOPHTHALMIC; ANTIOSTEOARTHRITIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = 30 ΜG/ML, IC95 = 650 ΜM;
ANTIPARKINSONIAN?; ANTIPMS 300 IU 2 × DAY; ANTIPROLIFERANT IC50 = 150 ΜG/ML; ANTIRADICULAR;
ANTIRETINOPATHIC?; ANTISENILITY; ANTISICKLING; ANTISPASMODIC 300 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTISTERILITY; ANTISTROKE; ANTISUNBURN; ANTI-SYNDROME-X; ANTITHALASSEMIC; ANTITHROMBIC 600 IU/DAY; ANTI-THROMBOXANE-B2; ANTITOXEMIC; ANTITUMOR 7 ΜM CKN; ANTITUMOR (BREAST) IC50 = 125 ΜG/ML, 100–250 ΜM;
ANTITUMOR (COLORECTAL) 500–10,000 ΜM; ANTITUMOR (PROSTATE)100–250 ΜM; ANTIULCEROGENIC 67
MG/MAN/3 ×/DAY/ORL; APOPTOTIC 100–250 ΜM; CEREBROPROTECTIVE; CIRCULOSTIMULANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE;
5-HETE-INHIBITOR; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC 100–450 IU/MAN/DAY; HYPOGLYCEMIC 600 IU/MAN/DAY;
IMMUNOSTIMULANT 60–800 IU; INSULIN-SPARING 1000 IU; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; ODC-INHIBITOR 400
MG/KG; P21-INDUCER 500–10,000 ΜM; PHOSPHOLIPASE-A2-INHIBITOR; PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR 10–50
ΜM, IC50 = 450 ΜM; VASODILATOR; RDA = 2–10 MG/DAY; PTD = 800 MG/DAY.
COMMIPHORA MYRRHA (NEES) ENGL. (BURSERACEAE)
AFRICAN MYRRH, HERABOL MYRRH, MYRRH, SOMALI MYRRH
SYNONYMS — BALSAMODENDRUM MYRRHA NEES, COMMIPHORA MOLMOL (ENGL.) ENGL., C. MYRRHA VAR.
MOLMOL ENGL.
“I HAVE PERFUMED MY BED WITH MYRRH…” PROVERBS 7:17.
MEDICINAL USES (MYRRH) — MYRRH WAS ALL BUT PANACEA TO THE ANCIENTS; IN MESOPOTAMIA AND THE
GRECO-ROMAN WORLD, IT WAS USED FOR ABSCESSES, BLADDER STONES, CHILBLAINS, DROPSY, EARACHE, EYE
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PROBLEMS, FEVER, HEMORRHOIDS, AND RHINOSIS. BITTER AND PUNGENT, THE MYRRH WAS ESTEEMED BY ORIENTALS
AS AN ASTRINGENT TONIC INTERNALLY AND AS A CLEANSING AGENT EXTERNALLY. IN ALGERIA, MYRRH IS USED TO
DRESS SUPPURATIONS. ACCORDING TO GRIEVE’S A MODERN HERBAL, MYRRH IS AN EMMENAGOGUE, A TONIC
IN DYSPEPSIA, AN EXPECTORANT, A MUCOSAL STIMULANT, A STOMACHIC CARMINATIVE, EXCITING APPETITE AND
GASTRIC JUICES, AND AN ASTRINGENT WASH. IT IS OCCASIONALLY COMBINED WITH ALOES AND IRON. TO THIS DAY,
IN THE U.S., IT IS USED AS A MOUTHWASH IN GINGIVOSIS, FOR SPONGY GUMS, ULCERATED THROAT, AND APHTHOUS
STOMATITIS. THE TINCTURE IS ALSO APPLIED EXTERNALLY TO FOUL AND INDOLENT SORES. IT IS USEFUL IN BRONCHORRHEA AND LEUCORRHEA, AND HAS SERVED AS A VERMIFUGE (BIB).
WHITE ET AL. (2000) SAY THAT MYRRH STIMULATES THE THYROID, ALTHOUGH SCIENTISTS STILL DON’T KNOW
THE MECHANISM. THEY RECOMMEND TINCTURES RATHER THAN TEA, SINCE MYRRH DOES OFFER UP ITS PHYTOCHEMICALS TO WATER AS WELL AS TO ALCOHOL. THEY SUGGEST 1
/8 TO 1
/4 TSP TINCTURES THRICE DAILY (WAF). ZHU
ET AL. (2001), REPORTING ON SIX SESQUITERPENOIDS, INCLUDING TWO NEW FURANOSESQUITERPENOIDS, NOTE
THAT THE MYRRH EXTRACTS OR THE FURANOSESQUITERPENOIDS HAVE DEMONSTRATED ANESTHETIC, ANTIBACTERIAL,
ANTIFUNGAL, AND ANITHYPERGLYCEMIC ACTIVITIES (JNP64:1460). SO THE BIBLICAL MYRRH IS STILL REVEALING
NEW SECRETS TWO MILLENNIA AFTER CHRIST.
INDICATIONS (MYRRH) — ABRASION (1; CAN); ADNEXOSIS (F; MAD); ALOPECIA (F; MAD); AMENORRHEA
(F; BGB; FEL; MAD; PH2); APHTHA (1; CAN); ASTHMA (1; APA; FEL; FNF); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (F;
MAD); ATHLETE’S FOOT (1; SKY); BACTERIA (1; JNP64:1460); BEDSORE (F; APA); BLADDER STONE (F; BIB);
BOIL (F; PNC); BRONCHOSIS (1; APA; BGB; FEL; FNF); BRUISE (F; BOW); CANCER (F; APA; PH2);
CANCER, ABDOMEN (F; PH2); CANCER, COLON (F; PH2); CANDIDA (1; BGB; FNF); CANKER SORE (1; APA;
SKY); CARBUNCLE (F; PH2); CARIES (F; FEL); CATARRH (F; BGB; CAN; FEL); CHILBLAIN (F; BIB); CHLOROSIS
(F; BIB); CIRCULOSIS (F; BOW); COLD (1; BGB; CAN; FNF; SKY); CONGESTION (1; APA; BGB); COUGH
(F; PH2); CRAMP (1; FNF); DECUBOSIS (F; BGB; BOW); DERMATOSIS (1; APA; FNF; MAD; PH2);
DIABETES (1; JNP64:1460); DIARRHEA (F; MAD; JNP64:1460); DROPSY (F; BIB); DYSENTERY (F; MAD);
DYSMENORRHEA (1; BGB; FNF; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (F; APA; FEL); DYSURIA (F; MAD); EARACHE (F; BIB);
ENTEROSIS (F; PH2); ERYSIPELAS (F; MAD); FEVER (F; BIB; MAD); FRECKLE (F; MAD); FUNGUS (1; FNF;
JNP64:1460); FURUNCULOSIS (1; CAN; PH2); GANGRENE (F; FEL); GAS (F; APA; MAD); GASTROSIS (F;
FEL; PH2; PNC; JNP64:1460); GINGIVOSIS (1; APA; FEL; FNF; PNC; SKY); GLEET (F; FEL); GONORRHEA (F; FEL); HALITOSIS (F; FEL); HEMORRHOID (F; APA; BGB; BIB); HEPATOSIS (F; MAD); HOARSENESS
(F; APA); HYPOTHYROIDISM (1; WAF); INFECTION (1; FNF; PH2; JNP64:1460); INFERTILITY (F; MAD);
INFLAMMATION (1; BGB; FNF; PH2); LARYNGOSIS (F; FEL); LEPROSY (F; APA); LEUKORRHEA (F; FEL;
MAD); MENOPAUSE (1; BGB); MENORRHAGIA (F; MAD); MONONUCLEOSIS (F; BOW); MUCOSOSIS (1; APA;
FEL; PH2); MYCOSIS (1; JNP64:1460); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); ODONTOSIS (F; MAD); OPHTHALMIA (F;
BIB); OSTEOSIS (F; BGB); OTOSIS (F; BOW); PAIN (1; JNP64:1460); PHARYNGOSIS (2; APA; FEL; KOM;
MAD; PH2; PNC); PULMONOSIS (F; MAD); RESPIROSIS (F; BGB); RHEUMATISM (F; BGB); RHINOSIS (F;
APA; BIB); SALPINGOSIS (F; MAD); SIDE ACHE (F; MAD); SINUSOSIS (1; APA); SORE (1; APA; FEL;
FNF; PNC); SORE THROAT (2; BGB; FEL; KOM; MAD; SKY); STOMATOSIS (2; APA; KOM; MAD;
PH2; PIP); SWELLING (F; APA); TONSILOSIS (1; APA; BGB; FEL; PNC); TUBERCULOSIS (F; MAD); ULCER
(F; APA; PH2; X11113992); UTEROSIS (F; MAD); UVULOSIS (F; FEL); VD (F; FEL); WATER RETENTION (F;
MAD); WORM (F; FEL; MAD); WOUND (F; APA; BGB); WRINKLE (F; MAD); YEAST (1; BGB; FNF).
MYRRH FOR GINGIVOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CUMINALDEHYDE; DIPENTENE;
EUGENOL; LIMONENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: EUGENOL; FORMIC-ACID; LIMONENE; M-CRESOL
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• CANDIDICIDE: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• FUNGICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CUMINALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
MYRRH FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: EUGENOL
• ANESTHETIC: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CUMINALDEHYDE; DIPENTENE;
EUGENOL; LIMONENE
• ANTIEDEMIC: EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: EUGENOL; FORMIC-ACID; LIMONENE; M-CRESOL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; DIPENTENE; LIMONENE
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• FUNGICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CUMINALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• FUNGISTAT: FORMIC-ACID; LIMONENE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
OTHER USES (MYRRH) — LONG BEFORE QUESTIONS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND GERMPLASM RIGHTS WERE
ISSUES, QUEEN HATSHEPSUT OF EGYPT, CIRCA 3500 B.P,, SENT A TREASURE HUNTING EXPEDITION TO WHAT IS TODAY
SOMALIA, LAND OF MYRRH AND QAT. THE QUEEN WANTED MORE MYRRH. RELIEFS IN THE TEMPLE SHE BUILT AT
DEIR EL BAHARI SUGGEST THAT THEY BROUGHT BACK PLENTY OF RESIN AND EVEN POTTED PLANTS. SO, FOR 3500
YEARS, GERMPLASM HAS BEEN MOVING FROM COUNTRY TO COUNTRY. THE QUEEN, YOU SEE, RUBBED MYRRH ON
HER LEGS AS PERFUME. DURING THE FEAST OF ISIS, WHEN THE EGYPTIANS BURNED OXEN AS OFFERINGS, THEY
STUFFED THE CARCASS WITH FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH TO MASK THE SMELL OF BURNING FLESH (THIERET, 1996).
ANCIENT EGYPTIANS BURNED IT IN THEIR TEMPLES AND USED IT FOR EMBALMING. MUCH OF THE MYRRH OF
COMMERCE TODAY COMES FROM THIS OR CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES OF ARABIA, ETHIOPIA, AND SOMALIA. HIGHLY
REGARDED IN THE ORIENT AS AN AROMATIC SUBSTANCE, PERFUME, AND MEDICINE. THERE IS EVEN A TERM
“MYRROPHORE” APPLIED TO THE WOMEN WHO BORE SPICES TO THE SEPULCHER OF JESUS WITH ALOES, CASSIA, AND
CINNAMON; IT WAS AN INGREDIENT OF THE HOLY OIL AND A DOMESTIC PERFUME. MYRRH IS A JEWISH HOLY OIL
AND GETS HONORABLE MENTION IN THE FIRST BOOKS OF CHRISTIAN, JEWISH, AND MUSLIM HOLY TEXTS (BGB).
SOME AUTHORITIES MAINTAIN THAT THE BIBLICAL MYRRH WAS IN REALITY A MIXTURE OF MYRRH AND LADANUM.
MYRRH WAS BURNED AS INCENSE FOR THE SUN GOD AT HELIOPOLIS AT NOON. MYRRH WAS INTRODUCED INTO CHINESE
AND TIBETAN PHARMACY AS EARLY AS THE 7TH CENTURY C.E. PERSIAN KINGS WORE MYRRH IN THEIR CROWNS.
AROUND 1342, THE KHAN OF CHINA SENT MYRRH AMONG OTHER GIFTS TO POPE BENEDICT AT AVIGNON, BUT THE
SHIPMENT WAS PLUNDERED, NEVER REACHING ITS DESTINATION (THIERET, 1996). MYRRH AND FRANKINCENSE WERE
EVEN BURNED DURING THE REIGN OF KING GEORGE III. ONE OLD LEGEND SAYS THAT MYRRHA, DAUGHTER OF THE
KING OF CYPRUS, BECAME UNNATURALLY OBSESSED WITH HER FATHER, WHO EXILED HER TO THE ARABIAN DESERT
WHERE THE GODS TRANSFORMED HER INTO THE MYRRH TREE, “IN WHICH GUISE SHE REMAINS, WEEPING TEARS
PERFUMED OF REPENTANCE.” THE PUNGENT GUM-RESIN IS USED COMMERCIALLY TO FLAVOR BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, CANDY, CHEWING GUM, GELATIN, PUDDINGS, AND SOUPS (FAC). IT IS ALSO AN INGREDIENT IN SWEDISH
BITTERS (FAC). THE GUM MAKES A GOOD MUCILAGE, AND THE INSOLUBLE RESIDUE FROM THE TINCTURE CAN BE
USED AS A GLUE (BIB). IMPORT STATISTICS ARE HARD TO COME BY. SCHOLARLY HISTORIAN THIERET (1996) SUGGESTS
TOTAL YEARLY PRODUCTION OF MYRRH IS PERHAPS 500 TONS, AND OF FRANKINCENSE 1000 TONS. RECENTLY, U.S.
IMPORTS RAN 5–20 TONS. THE U.K. IMPORTS CA. 30 TONS FRANKINCENSE EACH YEAR, ONE PERFUME MANUFACTURER
ALONE CONSUMING 5 TONS ANNUALLY (THIERET, 1996).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (MYRRH) — THOUGH MUCH IS HARVESTED FROM THE WILD (ARABIA, SOMALIA, YEMEN), SOME
IS CULTIVATED IN ETHIOPIA, KENYA, AND TANZANIA. NEEDS WELL DRAINED SUNNY AREAS, WITH MINIMUM
TEMPERATURES 10–15ΟC (50–60°F). PROPAGATED BY SEEDS SOWN IN SPRING OR HARDWOOD CUTTINGS AT THE
END OF THE GROWING SEASON (BOWN, 2001). WHETHER HARVESTED FROM THE WILD OR CULTIVARS, CUTS IN THE
BARK OOZE FORTH TEARS OF MYRRH (BGB). NATIVES CUT THE BARK, CAUSING THE EXUDATION OF A YELLOWISH
OLEORESIN, WHICH HARDENS ON EXPOSURE TO THE AIR AND TURNS REDDISH-BROWN (GEO).
CHEMISTRY (MYRRH) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN MYRRH. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CINNAMALDEHYDE — SEE ALSO CINNAMOMUM VERUM.
CURZERONE — ANTITUMOR.
FURANO-EUDESMA-1, 3–DIENE — ANALGESIC; 50 MG/KG ORL MUS; MYORELAXANT 50 MG/KG ORL MUS.
LINDSTRENE — HEPATOPROTECTIVE.
COSTUS SPECIOSUS (J. KÖNIG) SM.
(COSTACEAE. ALSO PLACED IN ZINGIBERACEAE)
CANE REED, CREPE GINGER, WILD GINGER
SYNONYM — BANKSEA SPECIOSA J. KÖNIG
MEDICINAL USES (CANE REED) — ASIANS CONSIDER THE RHIZOMES ANTHELMINTHIC, DEPURATIVE, LAXATIVE,
AND TONIC (KAB, WOI). AYURVEDICS USE IT IN “KAPHA” AND “VATA,” AND IN WESTERN TERMS, FOR ANEMIA,
BRONCHITIS, FEVER, HICCUPS, INFLAMMATION, AND LUMBAGO (KAB). IT IS REPORTEDLY USED IN INDIA FOR
COLDS, PNEUMONIA, AND RHEUMATISM (IHB). THE MALAYAN NAME, SETAWAR, MEANS “REMOVER OF VIRUS.”
MALAYS CHEW IT WITH BETEL FOR COUGH (IHB). THE DECOCTION IS USED TO BATHE PATIENTS WITH HIGH FEVER.
IT IS EVEN SPLATTERED ON ELEPHANTS SUFFERING FEVER. THEY ALSO POULTICE BRUISED LEAVES ONTO THE HEADS
OF FEVERISH PATIENTS. MALAYS USE IT FOR HUMANS INHABITED BY EVIL SPIRITS. JAVANESE APPLY THE RHIZOME
IN SYPHILIS. JAIN AND DEFILIPPS (1991) SUGGEST THAT THE RHIZOME IS USED AS AN ANTISPASMODIC,
ANTIPYRETIC, CNS-DEPRESSANT, DIURETIC, AND TONIC (SKJ). LEAVES ARE USED FOR SCABIES AND STOMACH
AILMENTS. STEM IS USED FOR BLISTERS AND BURNS. BARK USED FOR CHOLERA. GRUENWALD ET AL. (2000) SAY
THAT, IN ASIAN INDIAN MEDICINE, THE ROOTS AND/OR RHIZOMES ARE USED FOR VERY DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES,
MAKING ME SUSPECT THEY MAY HAVE CONFUSED KUST (“COSTUS” LATIN) WITH KUTH OR COSTUS (COLLOQUIAL)
ROOT (SAUSSUREA). BUT HOW WILL WE EVER KNOW? THEY SUGGEST THAT THE CANE REED IS USED FOR INSUFFICIENT
UTERINE CONTRACTILITY, POST-PARTUM BLEEDING, RETENTION OF THE PLACENTA, THREATENING ABORTION (PH2).
THEY ALSO SAY THAT OVERDOSES MIGHT LEAD TO EUROPEAN CHOLERA; MAYBE THAT MEANS DYSENTERY OR
DIARRHEA (JAD).
STEROID-LIKE COMPOUNDS ISOLATED FROM THE PLANT HAVE ANTIARTHRITIC, ANTIFERTILITY, AND ANTIINFLAMMATORY CAPACITY (SKJ). THE SAPONIN FRACTION HAS ANTIEXUDATIVE, CHOLERETIC, ESTROGENIC, AND ANTISPASMODIC EFFECTS AND POTENTIATES OR PROLONGS ANESTHESIA (PH2). I AM PLEASANTLY SURPRISED TO FIND
THAT PH2 LISTS CURCUMIN, THE ACTIVE INGREDIENT THAT I DON’T OFTEN FIND OUTSIDE THE GINGER FAMILY, WHICH
IS ADMITTEDLY CLOSELY RELATED TO THE COSTUS OR GINGER LILIES. IF CURCUMIN IS CONFIRMED, THEN THE CANE
GINGER SHARES IN COX-2-INHIBITORY ACTIVITY, PROPORTIONATE TO THE LEVELS OF CURCUMIN.
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA GIVES SOME INTERESTING DATA. ALKALOIDS FROM THE PLANT SHOW IN VITRO
AND IN VIVO ANTICHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITIES, PERHAPS EXPLAINING THE DEPURATIVE AND OPHTHALMIC ACTIVITY
(MPI). C. SPECIOSUS WAS FOUND TO BE 2.5 TIMES MORE ECBOLIC THAN GLORIOSA SUPERBA, ENOUGH TO
MAKE ME ADVISE PREGNANT WOMEN TO AVOID BOTH. SAPONINS FROM THE HERB CAUSED PROLIFERATION OF
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
UTERINE AND VAGINAL TISSUES, SIMILAR TO THOSE PRODUCED BY STILBOSTEROL (MPI). THESE SAPONINS ALSO
HAD ANTIARTHRITIC AND ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITIES. HABSAH ET AL. (2000) SCREENING DICHLOROMETHANE
AND METHANOL EXTRACTS OF 13 ZINGIBERACEAE SPECIES (ALPINIA, COSTUS, AND ZINGIBER) FOR ANTIMICROBIAL
AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES FOUND ALL TO BE ANTIBACTERIAL. ONLY THE METHANOL EXTRACT OF COSTUS DISCOLOR
SHOWED POTENT ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY AGAINST ASPERGILLUS OCHRACEOUS. ALL EXTRACTS WERE ANTIOXIDANT AND
COMPARABLE WITH ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL (X10996279).
INDICATIONS (CANE REED) — ABORTION (F; PH2); ADENOMA (1; FNF; FT68:483); ALZHEIMER’S (1;
FNF); ANASARCA (F; SKJ); ANEMIA (F; KAB); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF; MPI; SKJ); ASTHMA (1; SKJ;
HG37:18); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; FT68:483); BITE (F; PH2; SKJ); BLEEDING (F; PH2); BLISTER (F; SKJ);
BRONCHOSIS (F; KAB); BURN (F; SKJ); CANCER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF); CATARACT (1;
FNF; FT68:483); CATARRH (F; DEP; MPI); CHILDBIRTH (F; PH2); CHOLECYSTOSIS (1; PAM); CHOLERA (F;
SKJ); COLD (1; FNF; IHB; SKJ); COLITIS (1; HG37:18); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; BOW); CONSTIPATION (F;
BOW; SKJ); COUGH (F; DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2; SKJ); CROHN’S DISEASE (1; HG37:18); DERMATOSIS (F;
DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2); DOG BITE (F; SKJ); DROPSY (F; SKJ); DYSENTERY (F; IHB); DYSPEPSIA (F; KAB;
MPI); ECZEMA (1; IWU); EDEMA (1; FNF; PCF:338); FEVER (F; DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2; SKJ); FUNGUS
(1; FNF); GASTROSIS (F; SKJ); GRAVEL (F; SKJ); HEADACHE (F; SKJ); HEMATURIA (F; SKJ); HEPATOSIS (1;
FNF); HICCUP (F; KAB); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; FNF); IMPOTENCE (F; BOW); INFECTION (1; FNF);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; KAB; MPI); ISCHEMIA (1; PFH44:87); LEISHMANIASIS (1; X10865470); LEPROSY (F; IHB); LEUKEMIA (1; FT68:483); LUMBAGO (F; KAB); LYMPHOMA (1; FNF); MALARIA (F; SKJ);
MELANOMA (1; FNF); MYCOSIS (1; FNF); OPHTHALMIA (F; IHB; MPI); OSTEOSIS (F; KAB); OTOSIS (F;
BOW); PAIN (F; KAB); PHTHISIS (F; SKJ); PNEUMONIA (F; IHB); PSORIASIS (1; FNF); PULMONOSIS (1;
FNF); RABIES (F; DAA); RHEUMATISM (1; FNF; IHB; KAB; SKJ); SCABIES (F; SKJ); SMALLPOX (F;
BOW; IHB); SNAKEBITE (F; MPI; PH2; SKJ); STOMATOSIS (F; JLH); STONE (1; FNF); SWELLING (1; FNF);
SYPHILIS (F; IHB); THIRST (F; SKJ); THROMBOSIS (1; FNF); TUBERCULOSIS (F; SKJ); WORM (F; MPI).
CANE REED FOR ARTHROSIS:
• 12-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• ANTIARTHRITIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DIOSGENIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTISPASMODIC: CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
CANE REED FOR INFECTION:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DIOSGENIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• FUNGICIDE: CURCUMIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CURCUMIN
OTHER USES (CANE REED) — USED AS A FOOD PLANT IN S.E. ASIA, WHERE IT’S CALLED “TEBU” AND
“SETAWAR.” TENDER YOUNG SHOOTS ARE BOILED OR STEAMED AS A VEGETABLE, OFTEN IN COCONUT MILK; THE
FRUITS AND RHIZOMES ARE ALSO EATEN (FAC). IN INDIA, THE NONAROMATIC, ASTRINGENT, FIBROUS, MUCILAGINOUS
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
RHIZOME IS EATEN, OFTEN COOKED IN SYRUP OR PRESERVES. THE RHIZOME IS SAID TO TASTE LIKE A CUCUMBER
(IHB). OFTEN CULTIVATED AS AN ORNAMENTAL. IT IS USED IN FISHING AND MAGIC CEREMONIES (IHB). DRUG
SOMETIMES USED TO ADULTERATE GLORIOSA.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CANE REED) — CULTIVATED AND HARVESTED LIKE GINGER RELATIVES AND OTHER GINGER LILIES.
APPARENTLY DOES BEST IN MOIST, RICH, NEUTRAL TO ACID, WELL-DRAINED SOILS IN SHADE, TROPICAL CLIMATES
WITH HIGH HUMIDITY AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURE 13°C (55°F). SEEDS SOWN AS SOON AS RIPE AT TEMPERATURES CLOSE TO 20°C (68°F). ROOT DIVISIONS IN FALL (BOWN, 2001). HARVESTED AS NEEDED.
CHEMISTRY (CANE REED) — WITH SOME 3% CURCUMINOIDS (FNF), CANE REED MAY BE A WEAK COUSIN
TO SOME OF THE OTHER ZINGIBERACEOUS SPECIES, LIKE TURMERIC (WHICH RANGES FROM 3–8% CURCUMINOIDS).
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CANE REED. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CURCUMIN — ADI = 100 ΜG/KG; ANTIAFLATOXIC IC50 = 81 ΜM; ANTIADENOMACARCINOGENIC 50–200
MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIANGIOGENIC; ANTIARACHIDONATE; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIASTHMATIC;
ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC 0.4–20 MG/KG/DAY; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICANCER; ANTICATARACT 75
MG/KG ORL RAT; ANTICHOLECYSTOSIC; ANTICOLITIC; ANTICOLLAGENIC; ANTICROHN’S; ANTIEBV IC50 = 5.4
ΜM; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIEDEMIC ED50 = 100.2 MG/KG ORL MUS (CF 78 FOR CORTISONE) ED50 = 48
MG/KG ORL RAT (CF 45 FOR CORTISONE, 48 FOR PHENYLBUTAZONE); ANTIEICOSANOID; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIHIV IC50 = 40 ΜM; ANTIINFLAMMATORY 1200 MG/MAN/DAY, 1 ΜM; ANTIINTEGRASE 40–150 ΜM;
ANTIISCHEMIC; ANTILEISHMANNIC IC50 = 7.8 ΜG/ML; ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTILEUKOTRIENE 170 MG/KG ORL
RAT; ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT; ANTILITHIC 0.5% DIET; ANTILYMPHOMIC 0.4 MG/ML, 4 ΜG/ML; ANTIMELANOMIC
200 NM/KG ORL MUS; ANTIMETASTATIC 200 NM/KG ORL MUS; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = 500 ΜM; ANTIPAPILLOMIC; ANTIPEROXIDANT; ANTIPROLIFERANT IC50 = 13 ΜM; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN 8.8 ΜM; ANTIPSORIATIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITHROMBIC; ANTITHROMBOXANE; ANTITUMOR
(BREAST); ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTITUMOR (DUODENUM); ANTITUMOR (LIVER) 10 ΜM; ANTITUMOR
(MAMMARY) 50–200 MG/KG IPR RAT; ANTITUMOR (SKIN); ANTITUMOR-PROMOTER IC91 = 10 ΜM; ANTIULCER ORL RAT; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 5.4 ΜM; APOPTOTIC 30–90 ΜM, 150–2000 PPM (DIET) ORL RAT;
CARDIODEPRESSANT; CHELATOR IC50 = 500 ΜM; CHELATOR (IRON); CHOLAGOGUE; CHOLERETIC; COX-2-
INHIBITOR 10–20 ΜM; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; CYTOCHROME-P450-INHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC 0.4–4
MG/ML, IC50 = 1 ΜG/ML, IC50 = 25 ΜM; DEODORANT; DETOXICANT; DNA-PROTECTANT; DYE; FIBRINOLYTIC; FUNGICIDE; GLUTATHIONIGENIC 80 MG/KG IGS RAT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE 30 PPM, 30 MG/KG/DAY;
5-HETE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 3–10 ΜM; 8-HETE-INHIBITOR IC40 = 3 ΜM; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC 0.15%
DIET 7 WKS; HYPOLIPIDEMIC 0.15% DIET 7 WKS; HYPOTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT 40 MG/KG/5 WK
ORL RAT; LIPTASE-PROMOTER; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; 12-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; LITHOLYTIC 0.5%
DIET; MALTASE-PROMOTER; METAL-CHELATOR; MMP-9-INHIBITOR 10 ΜM; NEMATICIDE; NEUROPROTECTIVE
80 MG/KG IGS RAT; NO-SCAVENGER; ODC-INHIBITOR ED = ~150 MG/KG; P-450-INHIBITOR IC50 = 2–14
ΜG/ML; PGE2-INHIBITOR IC42 = 3 ΜM; PHOTOTOXIC; PLASMODICIDE; PROTEASE-INHIBITOR IC50 =
11–250 ΜM; PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR IC69 = 15 ΜM, IC50 = 15 ΜM; PROTEIN-KINASE-INHIBITOR;
PTK-INHIBITOR 5–100 ΜM; PULMONOPROTECTIVE 200 MG/KG/7 D; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 3.4
ΜM; RADIOPROTECTIVE; 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; SUCRASE-PROMOTER; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR; ULCEROGENIC ORL RAT; TD = >5000 MG/KG ORL RAT; LDLO = >2000
MG/KG ORL MUS; LDLO = >1800 MG/KG ORL RAT.
CURCUMINOIDS — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMITOTIC; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTITUMOR; CHOLAGOGUE; CYTOTOXIC; LEUKOTRIENE-INHIBITION; ULCEROGENIC?.
DIOSGENIN — ANTIFATIGUE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTISTRESS; ESTROGENIC 20–40 MG/KG/DAY/15 DAY SCU
MUS; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; MASTOGENIC 20–40 MG/KG/DAY/15 DAY SCU MUS.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CROCUS SATIVUS L. (IRIDACEAE)
SAFFRON
MEDICINAL USES (SAFFRON) — SAFFRON IS NOT INCLUDED IN AMERICAN AND BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIAS, BUT
SOME INDIAN MEDICAL FORMULAE STILL INCLUDE IT. SAFFRON IS USED TO PROMOTE ERUPTION OF MEASLES, AND
IN SMALL DOSES IS CONSIDERED ANTIHYSTERIC, ANTISPASMODIC, APHRODISIAC, CARMINATIVE, DIAPHORETIC,
ECBOLIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, SEDATIVE, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC. IT IS AN OFT-CITED FOLK
REMEDY FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CANCER. IT IS SOMETIMES USED TO PROMOTE MENSTRUATION. EARLY ON, IT WAS
TAKEN AS A PREVENTIVE AGAINST THE PLAGUE AND OTHER EPIDEMICS. IN BIBLICAL TIMES, SAFFRON WAS IMPORTANT
IN SOME ANCIENT HERBALS, ITS EXTRACTS USED AS AN ANTISPASMODIC, EMMENAGOGUE, AND GENERAL STIMULANT
AND TONIC. EARLY ECLECTICS VALUED IT FOR AMENORRHEA, CHLOROSIS, DYSMENORRHEA, HYSTERIA, MENORRHAGIA,
AND SUPPRESSION OF LOCHIAL DISCHARGE. IN INDIA, SAFFRON IS REGARDED FOR BLADDER, KIDNEY, AND LIVER
AILMENTS, ALSO FOR CHOLERA. MIXED WITH “GHEE,” IT IS USED FOR DIABETES. SAFFRON OIL IS APPLIED EXTERNALLY
TO UTERINE SORES (BIB, CRC). LEBANESE ADD A DOZEN PISTILS TO A LARGE CUP HOT WATER FOR CHILDREN
COMING DOWN WITH CHICKENPOX, MEASLES, OR MUMPS. GERMANS TAKE IT IN MILK FOR MEASLES (MAD).
ALGERIANS AND GYPSIES USE THE SAFFRON INFUSION AS A COLLYRIUM. EIGHT TO TEN FILAMENTS (STIGMATA)
PER CUP OF TEA IS SUGGESTED AS A NARCOTIC FOR ASTHMA, HYSTERIA, OR WHOOPING COUGH (BIB, LIL, MAD,
PH2, RIN). SMALL SAFFRON DOSES STIMULATE THE FLOW OF GASTRIC JUICES, LARGE DOSES STIMULATE THE SMOOTH
MUSCLE OF THE UTERUS (PH2). OVERDOSES ARE REPORTEDLY NARCOTIC, AND SAFFRON CORMS ARE TOXIC TO YOUNG
ANIMALS. APOPLEXY AND EXTRAVAGANT GAIETY ARE POSSIBLE AFTER EFFECTS.
KAZUHO AND SAITO (2000) REVIEW PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES SHOWING SAFFRON EXTRACTS HAVE ANTITUMOR EFFECTS, RADICAL SCAVENGER PROPERTIES, OR HYPOLIPEMIC EFFECTS. AMONG THE CONSTITUENTS OF
SAFFRON EXTRACT, CROCETIN IS MAINLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THESE PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES. THEY STRESS
RECENT BEHAVIORAL AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES, DEMONSTRATING THAT SAFFRON EXTRACT AFFECTS LEARNING AND MEMORY IN EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. SAFFRON EXTRACT IMPROVED ETHANOL-INDUCED IMPAIRMENTS
OF LEARNING BEHAVIORS IN MICE AND PREVENTED ETHANOL-INDUCED INHIBITION OF HIPPOCAMPAL LONG-TERM
POTENTIATION, A FORM OF ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY THAT MAY UNDERLIE LEARNING AND
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MEMORY. MEMORY-SPARING EFFECT OF SAFFRON EXTRACT IS ATTRIBUTED TO CROCIN (CROCETIN DI-GENTIOBIOSE
ESTER), BUT NOT CROCETIN. SAFFRON EXTRACT OR ITS ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS, CROCETIN AND CROCIN, COULD BE
USEFUL AS A TREATMENT FOR NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS ACCOMPANYING MEMORY IMPAIRMENT. SO
MAYBE IF YOU MUST IMBIBE, A SAFFRON LIQUEUR MIGHT BE THE LIQUEUR OF CHOICE. THE SAFFRON OCCURS
IN SEVERAL LIQUEURS. IN WHAT I CALL “BRANDY SWIFTER,” A CUP OF SAFFRON TEA, HEAVILY CHARGED WITH
BRANDY, HAS BEEN USED FOR MEASLES. OTHERS SUGGEST THREE SPOONFULS OR MORE OF SAFFRON CORDIAL FOR
THOSE WHO “HAVE TAKEN TOO LIBERAL A CUP OVER NIGHT” (LIL).
CROCIN IS CHOLERETIC, BUT MANY HERBS, IF NOT ALL, CONTAIN CHOLERETICS. CHOLERETICS STIMULATE THE
PRODUCTION OF BILE, THE BITTER SUBSTANCE THAT EMULSIFIES FATS IN THE DUODENUM, STIMULATES PERISTALSIS,
THEREBY ENCOURAGING MOVEMENT OF FOOD ALONG THE GI TRACT. WHILE USEFUL IN MODERATION IN HEALTHY
PEOPLE, CHOLERETICS MIGHT BE CONTRAINDICATED FOR THOSE WITH GALLBLADDER OR LIVER DISEASES.
PREMKUMAR ET AL. (2001) FOUND THAT SAFFRON INHIBITED GENOTOXICITY, AT LEAST IN MICE, HINTING THAT
IT MIGHT SPARE SOME SIDE EFFECTS OF CHEMOTHERAPY. SAFFRON MODULATED IN VIVO GENOTOXICITY OF
CISPLATIN, CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE, MITOMYCIN C, AND URETHANE. SWISS ALBINO MICE WERE PRETREATED FIVE
DAYS WITH THREE DOSES (20, 40, AND 80 MG/KG BODY WEIGHT) AQUEOUS SAFFRON EXTRACT. TREATMENT WITH
THE GENOTOXINS ALONE SIGNIFICANTLY INHIBITED GST ACTIVITY. SAFFRON PRETREATMENT ATTENUATED THE
INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF THE GENOTOXINS ON GST ACTIVITY (X11665650).
MARTINEZ-TOME ET AL. (2001) COMPARING ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF MEDITERRANEAN SPICES, COMPARED ANNATTO, CUMIN, OREGANO, SWEET AND HOT PAPRIKA, ROSEMARY, AND SAFFRON, AT 5% CONCENTRATION
WITH THE COMMON FOOD ADDITIVES (BUTYLATED HYDROXYANISOLE [BHA], BUTYLATED HYDROXYTOLUENE
[BHT], AND PROPYL GALLATE) AT 100 ΜG/G. FOR INHIBITING LIPID PEROXIDATION: ROSEMARY > OREGANO >
PROPYL GALLATE > ANNATTO > BHA > SWEET PAPRIKA > CUMIN > HOT PAPRIKA > SAFFRON > BHT. SO 5%
SAFFRON WAS SLIGHTLY BETTER THAN 100 ΜG/G BHT AS AN ANTIOXIDANT (MARTINEZ-TOME ET AL., 2001).
KUBO AND KINST-HORI (1999) REPORTED THAT THE COMMON FLAVONOL, KAEMPFEROL, ISOLATED FROM THE
FRESH FLOWER PETALS OF SAFFRON, INHIBITED TYROSINASE (ID50 = 6700 MG/ML (0.23 MM). NOT VERY POTENT,
METHINKS. MORE IMPORTANT PERHAPS IS THE COX-2-INHIBITORY ACTION OF KAEMPFEROL.
INDICATIONS (SAFFRON) — ADENOSIS (F; JLH); AEGILOPS (F; JLH); AMENORRHEA (1; CRC; MAD; PH2);
ASTHMA (F; MAD); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BLADDER AILMENT (F; CRC); BLEEDING (F; DAA; MAD); BLOOD
DISORDER (F; CRC); BRONCHOSIS (F; PH2); BURN (F; JLH); CACOETHES (F; JLH); CANCER (1; APA; FNF;
PR14:149); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, BLADDER (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, BREAST (1;
APA; CRC; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; APA; JLH); CANCER, DIAPHRAGM (1; APA; JLH); CANCER, EAR (1;
APA; CRC); CANCER, EYE (1; APA; JLH); CANCER, KIDNEY (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, LARYNX (1; APA;
JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, MOUTH (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, NECK (1; APA; CRC);
CANCER, SPLEEN (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, STOMACH (1; APA; CRC; JLH); CANCER, TESTICLE (1 APA; JLH);
CANCER, THROAT (1; APA; JLH); CANCER, TONSIL (1; APA; CRC); CANCER, UTERUS (1; APA; CRC; JLH);
CARDIOPATHY (F; APA); CATARRH (F; CRC; SKJ); CHILDBIRTH (F; DAA; PH2); CHOLERA (F; CRC); CHOREA
(F; HHB; MAD); COLD (F; CRC); CONDYLOMA (F; DAA); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; MAD); COUGH (F; DAA;
MAD); CRAMP (F; DAA; HHB); CYSTOSIS (F; JLH); DEPRESSION (F; CRC; DAA; PNC); DERMATOSIS (F;
CRC); DIABETES (F; CRC); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAA; HHB; MAD PNC); EDEMA (1; APA; FNF);
ENCEPHALOSIS (1; APA); ENTEROSIS (F; JLH); EPISTAXIS (F; MAD); FEAR (F; CRC; DAA); FEVER (F; CRC;
PH2); FIBROID (F; JLH); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GAS (F; MAD); GASTROSIS (F; JLH); GOUT (F; MAD); HANGOVER
(F; LIL); HEADACHE (F; PH2); HEMOPTYSIS (F; DAA; MAD); HEPATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF; JLH; SKJ);
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; APA; FNF); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; APA; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); HYSTERIA (F;
CRC; DAA; MAD); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; JLH); LACHRIMOSIS (F; JLH); LARYNGOSIS (F; JLH); LEUKEMIA (F; JLH); LOCHIOSTASIS (F; PH2); LYMPHOMA (1; APA;
JLH); MEASLES (F; CRC; DAA; MAD); MELANCHOLY (F; CRC; HHB); MENORRHAGIA (F; HHB; PH2);
MENOXENIA (F; CRC); NEPHROSIS (F; JLH); NEUROSIS (1; CRC; FNF); OBESITY (1; FNF; PR14:149);
OPHTHALMIA (F; JLH); ORCHOSIS (F; JLH); PAIN (1; DAA; FNF); PAROTOSIS (F; JLH); PERTUSSIS (F; BIB;
DAA; MAD); PHYMATA (F; JLH); PLAGUE (F; MAD); PUERPERIUM (F; CRC); SCLEROSIS (F; CRC); SHOCK
(F; CRC; DAA); SNAKEBITE (F; SKJ); SORE THROAT (F; PH2); SPASM (F; CRC); SPLENOSIS (F; CRC; JLH);
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SWELLING (1; APA); TONSILOSIS (F; JLH); TWITCHING (F; MAD); UTEROSIS (F; CRC; DAA; JLH); VD (F;
CRC; DAA); VERTIGO (F; MAD); VOMITING (F; PH2); WART (F; CRC).
SAFFRON FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-MYRCENE; CAMPHOR; DELPHINIDIN; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LYCOPENE; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLICACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTILEUKEMIC: ASTRAGALIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: GERANIOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CROCETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CROCETIN; CYANIDIN; DELPHINIDIN; GAMMA-TERPINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LYCOPENE;
MALVIDIN; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTISARCOMIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTITUMOR: CROCETIN; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LYCOPENE; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PCYMENE;QUERCETIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE
• CYTOTOXIC: QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; ZEAXANTHIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ASTRAGALIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PREVITAMIN-A: GAMMA-CAROTENE
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
SAFFRON FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; VITAMIN-B-1
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; LINALOOL
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PHENYLETHANOL; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PINENE; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLICACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PINENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PCYMENE; QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE; PINENE; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ASTRAGALIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (SAFFRON) — IN BIBLICAL TIMES, SAFFRON WAS IMPORTANT TO PEOPLE OF THE EAST AS A
CONDIMENT AND SWEET PERFUME, THE STIGMAS BEING PARTICULARLY VALUED FOR THEIR FOOD-COLORING
PROPERTY. DIOSCORIDES MENTIONS ITS USE AS A PERFUME. PLINY RECORDS THAT THE BENCHES OF THE PUBLIC
THEATERS WERE STREWN WITH SAFFRON, AND THE COSTLY PETALS WERE PLACED IN SMALL FOUNTAINS, TO DIFFUSE
THE SCENT INTO PUBLIC HALLS. TODAY, SAFFRON THE DYE, DRIED STIGMATA OF THE FLOWERS, IS MORE IMPORTANT
AS A CULINARY SPICE THAN AS A MEDICINE. IN EUROPE, IT IS USED AS A FLAVORING AND COLORING INGREDIENT,
AND DRUGGISTS ADD IT TO MEDICINES. IN INDIA, THEY ARE USED TO ADD YELLOW SHADES TO CURRY. SAFFRON
IS CULTIVATED FOR THE DYE OBTAINED FROM THE STIGMAS OF THE FLOWERS; ABOUT 100,000 FLOWERS YIELD
1 KG SAFFRON. DYE USED CHIEFLY AS A COLORING AGENT AND SPICE IN COOKERY (ESPECIALLY SPANISH), FOR
BISCUITS, BOUILLABAISSE, BUTTER, CAKES, CHEESE, CREAMS, CURRIES, EGGS, LIQUEURS, PRESERVES, PUDDINGS,
RICE DISHES (E.G., BIRYANI, PAELLA, RISOTTO), SOUPS, STEWS, ESPECIALLY CHICKEN DISHES, AND IN CONFECTIONERY TO GIVE COLOR, FLAVOR, AND AROMA. IT IS USED AS A SPICE WITH FISH, SHELLFISH, OR POULTRY CREATING
SUCH FAMOUS DISHES AS SPANISH PAELLA, FRENCH BOUILLABAISSE, AND PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH CHICKEN
POT PIES (AAR). FOR BIRYANIS AND ELEGANT PERSIAN RICE DISHES, SOME RICE IS SPOONED INTO THE
GOLDEN-WARM SAFFRON WATER, GELDED, AND RETURNED TO THE UNGELDED RICE. FRUITS ALSO BLEND WELL
WITH SAFFRON; SAFFRON CREAMS AND ICE CREAMS ARE REAL TREATS. NEVER SAUTE SAFFRON THREADS WITH
ANYTHING, ESPECIALLY ONIONS, AT THE BEGINNING OF A RECIPE (AAR). STIGMATA USED AS A TEA SUBSTITUTE.
ROOTS ARE EATEN ROASTED (FAC). USED IN COSMETICS FOR EYEBROWS AND NAIL POLISHES AND AS INCENSE.
IT HAS ALSO BEEN USED AS A MILD DEODORANT. DISSOLVED IN WATER, IT IS USED AS AN INK AND IS APPLIED
TO FOREHEADS ON RELIGIOUS AND CEREMONIAL OCCASIONS. THE GOLD OF COOKERY IS NOW AS EXPENSIVE AS
THE GOLD OF JEWELRY (BIB, CRC). BEING VERY EXPENSIVE, SAFFRON IS ALMOST ALWAYS ADULTERATED WITH
CALENDULA, CARTHAMUS, CURCUMA, OR TAGETES. IT SHOULD NOT BE STORED REAL HOT OR REAL COLD. DO
NOT REFRIGERATE OR FREEZE, BUT KEEP IN A COOL DRY PLACE (AAR). PROPERLY STORED, IT CAN LAST THREE
YEARS (BIB, CRC, LIL, TAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (SAFFRON) — FOR THE GARDENER, BULBS (CORMS) ARE PLANTED IN LATE SPRING, 4–6 IN DEEP
IN WELL-PREPARED, WELL-DRAINED SOIL, IN FULL SUN OR ONLY PARTIALLY SHADED SITES. THRIVING IN A DRY
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE, SAFFRON CAN BE GROWN BY CAUTIOUS HERBALISTS IN COLDER, WETTER CLIMATES.
HARDY TO ZONE 6 (LIL). USUALLY PLANTED IN RAISED BEDS, OCCASIONALLY WITH DRAINS ON FOUR SIDES,
ESPECIALLY IN WATERLOGGED AREAS, OFTEN MONOCULTURED. IF SKILLFULLY INTERCROPPED, WEEDING MAY
BE KEPT TO A MINIMUM. SOME RECOMMEND 6-IN SPACING BETWEEN THE CORMS. FLOWERING IN FALL,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE FLOWERS OR STIGMAS ARE HAND PICKED AND QUICKLY AND CAREFULLY DRIED WITH LOW HEAT. ONE NEEDS
AVOID HIGH HUMIDITY AND/OR HARD FROST AT FLOWERING TIME, A PERIOD OF ONLY ABOUT THREE WEEKS.
YIELDS RUN PRETTY CLOSE TO 10 LB/A DRIED SAFFRON BUT MAY EXCEED 25. AFTER ABOUT THREE CROPS IN
MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES, THE BULBS ARE TAKEN UP AND REPLANTED ELSEWHERE. IT TAKES MORE THAN A
TON OF BULBS TO PLANT AN ACRE. FOR PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE, SOME 3500 KG CORMS WILL PLANT A
HECTARE (CA. 3500 LB/ACRE). PLANTING BEGINS IN MARCH BY PLOWING TO A DEPTH OF 25–30 CM, AFTER
REMOVING ALL STONES, ROOTS, AND RUBBISH. SECOND PLOWING AND MANURING ARE IN APRIL OR EARLY
MAY, TO A DEPTH OF 10–15 CM. MIDDLE-SIZED TUBERS, SOUND AND WITHOUT EXTERNAL COVERING, PLANTED
IN DOUBLE ROWS AT BOTTOM OF TRENCHES, 15–20 CM APART IN ROWS. TRENCHES SHOULD BE 10–12 CM
DEEP AND 45 CM WIDE. SOIL OF NEW TRENCH USED TO FILL PRECEDING TRENCH, WITH A DEEP WIDE FURROW
BEING MADE EVERY FOUR TO SIX ROWS. THOROUGH CULTIVATION AND FREEDOM OF WEEDS ARE ESSENTIAL.
SAFFRON IS USUALLY GROWN IN MONOCULTURE BUT MAY BE OVERCROPPED WITH LETTUCE, CUCUMBERS, OR
RADISHES DURING PERIOD WHEN BULB IS DORMANT, WHICH IS FROM LATE MAY UNTIL SEPTEMBER, WHEN
THE FLOWERS COME UP. IN SEPTEMBER, SOIL IS DUG 6–7 CM DEEP BETWEEN TRENCHES, AND IN OCTOBER,
BEFORE FLOWERING, SOIL IS LIGHTLY HOED. AFTER HARVEST, SOIL BETWEEN TRENCHES IS DUG TO A DEPTH OF
12–15 CM. AT END OF APRIL OR BEGINNING OF MAY, LEAVES ARE CUT AND DRIED FOR FODDER. AFTER THE
FOURTH CROP, THE ENTIRE PLOT IS DUG UP IN MAY, TUBERS GRADED, THE BEST ONES SAVED FOR NEW PLANTINGS,
AND THE REMAINDER SOLD AS LIVESTOCK FEED. SAFFRON IS A GOOD ALTERNATIVE FOR OPIUM POPPIES; GROWS
WELL UNDER SIMILAR CLIMATE AND SOIL CONDITIONS, REQUIRES MUCH HAND LABOR, AND BRINGS AS HIGH A
PRICE ON WORLD MARKETS AS OPIUM. HARVEST PERIOD DOES NOT COINCIDE WITH RICE HARVEST AS OPIUM
TAPPING DOES (CFR, LIL).
CHEMISTRY (SAFFRON) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SAFFRON. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CROCETIN — ANTICANCER (SKIN) 3 ΜM; ANTIHYPOXIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTITUMOR-PROMOTER 3 ΜM; CHOLERETIC 100 MG/KG; COLORANT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; LIPOLYTIC; NEUROPROTECTIVE.
CROCIN — CHOLERETIC 100 MG/KG; COLORANT; DYE; NEUROPROTECTIVE.
KAEMPFEROL — SEE ALSO ALPINIA OFFICINARUM.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CUNILA ORIGANOIDES (L.) BRITTON (LAMIACEAE)
AMERICAN DITTANY, DITTANY, FROST FLOWER, FROST MINT, MARYLAND DITTANY,
MOUNTAIN DITTANY, STONE MINT
SYNONYMS — CUNILA MARIANA L., SATUREJA ORIGANOIDES L.
MEDICINAL USES (FROST MINT) — REPORTEDLY, DITTANY IS CALLED “FEVERWORT” IN ARKANSAS AND IS USED
FOR HEADACHE AND SNAKEBITE. IT IS ALSO USED DRY OR FRESH FOR TEA. WILD DITTANY WAS REPORTEDLY USED
BY NATIVE AMERICANS AND EARLY AMERICAN SETTLERS FOR COLDS AND FEVER. I FIND THE DITTANY ATTRACTIVE,
SUMMER OR WINTER, AND TRULY BELIEVE THAT A JANUARY TEA OF THE AROMATIC DEAD STALKS OF CUNILA AND
MONARDA HELPED BREAK UP A BAD, LINGERING COUGH. I SUSPECT EXPECTORANT AND ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES
RESIDE EVEN IN THE DEAD STEMS PERSISTING IN THE WINTER. THE SMELL OF THYMOL AND CARVACROL ARE STILL
THERE, WITH ALL THEIR MEDICINAL VIRTUES. I LIKE THE QUOTE ORGANIC GARDENING ATTRIBUTES TO FAMED
PHARMACOGNOCIST NORMAN FARNSWORTH IN THEIR FIRST ISSUE OF THE LAST DECADE OF THIS MILLENNIUM
(JANUARY 1990, P. 54), “THYMOL HAS BEEN FOUND TO LOOSEN PHLEGM IN THE RESPIRATORY TRACT…. IT ALSO
HAS BEEN SHOWN TO ACT AS AN ANTITUSSIVE WHICH WILL RELIEVE COUGHING.” I THINK IT WILL BE JUST AS
PROMISING FOR BACKACHE. IF I HAD A BACKACHE AND A LOT OF DITTANY, I’D DRINK DITTANY TEA AND MAYBE
EVEN ADD A LITTLE TO MY BATH WATER. THE OIL IS SAID TO BE A STIMULANT AROMATIC. BECAUSE OF ITS HIGH
CONTENT OF THYMOL, IT IS PROBABLY A GOOD ANTISEPTIC AS WELL. BUT DON’T OVERDO THE THYMOL, IT CAN
IRRITATE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. EVEN GRAS HERBS SHOULD BE USED IN MODERATION. IT SEEMS THAT THYMOL
AND CARVACROL OFTEN RUN IN TANDEM. I SUSPECT WITHIN A SPECIES, IF ONE IS HIGH, THE OTHER IS COMPENSATORILY LOW. THYMOL IS ALSO SAID TO BE ANTISPASMODIC.
INDICATIONS (FROST MINT) — ACNE (1; FNF); ALZHEIMER’S (1; FNF); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; FNF); BACKACHE (1; FNF); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF); CANDIDA (1;
FNF); CARIES (1; FNF); CHILDBIRTH (F; BOW; DEM); COLD (1; FAD; FNF); CONGESTION (1; FNF);
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
COUGH (1; FNF); CRAMP (1; FNF); DEPRESSION (1; FNF); DERMATOSIS (1; FNF); FEVER (F; BOW;
DEM; FAD; HHB); FLU (1; FNF); FUNGUS (1; FNF); HEADACHE (1; BOW; DEM; FAD; FNF);
HALITOSIS (1; FNF); HERPES (1; FNF); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); MELANCHOLY
(1; FNF); MYCOSIS (1; FNF); NEUROSIS (1; FNF); PAIN (1; FNF); PERIODONTOSIS (1; FNF); PLAQUE
(1; FNF); RHEUMATISM (1; FNF); SNAKEBITE (F; FAD; HHB); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; FNF); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; FNF); TRICHINOSIS (1; FNF); TRICHOMONAS (1; FNF); UTI (1; FNF); VIRUS (1; FNF);
WORM (1; FNF); YEAST (1; FNF).
FROST MINT FOR BACKACHE:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; MYRCENE; THYMOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; THYMOL
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTIRHEUMATIC: THYMOL
• ANTISPASMODIC: CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; LIMONENE; MYRCENE; THYMOL
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; THYMOL
• MYORELAXANT: THYMOL
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
FROST MINT FOR COLD:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; MYRCENE; THYMOL
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; LIMONENE; MYRCENE;
P-CYMENE; THYMOL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; THYMOL
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; THYMOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: CARVACROL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE; THYMOL
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; LIMONENE; THYMOL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; THYMOL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; THYMOL
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; CARVACROL; LIMONENE; THYMOL
OTHER USES (FROST MINT) — DITTANY COULD BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANY OF THE OTHER HIGH-CARVACROL/THYMOL
PLANTS (MONARDA, ORIGANUM, SATUREJA, THYMUS), ONE FOR THE OTHER, AS PIZZA HERBS—AT LEAST IN MY
KITCHEN. IF I HAD PIZZA WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO, AND NO SPICES, I’D ADD A LITTLE DITTANY IN LIEU OF
OREGANO. GRIEVE’S HERBAL SPEAKS OF “OIL OF DITTANY, WHICH IS STATED TO CONTAIN ABOUT 40 PER CENT OF
PHENOLS, PROBABLY THYMOL.” A FORMER ASSOCIATE, JEFF STRACHAN, NOTED THAT WHEN HE BROUGHT POTTED
PLANTS INTO THE GREENHOUSE, MOST OF THE WHITEFLIES (PRIALEUROYDES VAPORIANUM) MIGRATED TO HIS
DITTANY FOR A FEW DAYS. THEN, AFTER POPULATIONS BUILT UP ON THE DITTANY, THE WHITEFLIES RETURNED TO
THE OTHER HOST PLANTS, IN EVEN GREATER NUMBERS. SOME OF THE AROMATIC COMPOUNDS IN THE DITTANY
MIGHT LURE WHITEFLIES TO SOME FATAL TRAP. DR. JOHN NEIL, USDA ENTOMOLOGIST, LOOKED INTO THIS AT THE
USDA BUT WAS NOT ABLE TO CONFIRM THIS TRAP CONCEPT. TOO BAD!
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CULTIVATION (FROST MINT) — IN EARLY AUTUMN, THIS OLD BOTANIST’S FANCY TURNS TO FROST FLOWERS. THE
FIRST WEEKEND IN OCTOBER, I HEAD FOR WHAT I CALL “FROST FLOWER FEN,” WHERE THERE IS AN ABUNDANCE OF
THE PLANTS, AND I DIG A NEW STASH FOR THE WINTER. NOT FOR MY PIZZA PIES, BUT SO I’LL HAVE FLOWERS
EVERY MONTH OF THE YEAR. FOR ALMOST A DECADE NOW, I HAVE HAD FLOWERS 12 MONTHS OF THE YEAR,
THANKSGIVING, CHRISTMAS DAY, NEW YEAR’S DAY, ETC., AT LEAST WHEN THE TEMPERATURES GOT WELL BELOW
FREEZING THE NIGHT BEFORE. I HAVE GROWN THE PLANT FROM SEED AND TRANSPLANTED IN SPRING AND FALL, AND
DURING THAWS IN MIDWINTER. IT SEEMS TO TOLERATE DRY, WELL-DRAINED SLOPES IN SEMI-SHADY OPEN
HARDWOOD FORESTS IN THE PIEDMONT AND LOW MOUNTAINS. TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) NOTE THAT IT IS
HARDY TO ZONE 6, PREFERRING LIGHT SHADE, MOIST BUT WELL-DRAINED RICH SOIL WITH LEAF MOLD. NORMALLY
PROPAGATED BY DIVISIONS OR SEEDS IN EARLY SPRING.
CHEMISTRY (FROST MINT) — THE AROMATIC CHEMICALS IN FROST FLOWER SHARE THE ESSENCES OF EUROPEAN
OREGANOS, SAVORY, AND THYME, LIKE OUR AMERICAN DITTANY AND HORSEBALM (MONARDA), ALL GOOD ANTISPASMODIC HERBS, LOADED WITH CARVACROL AND THYMOL. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS
FOUND IN FROST MINT. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CARVACROL — ANESTHETIC; ANTHELMINTHIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC IC50 = 5.53 ΜM; ANTIBACTERIAL
MIC = 39–625, MIC 170–290; ANTICHOLINESTERASE?; ANTIDIURETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 4
ΜM; ANTIMELANOMIC IC50 = 120 ΜM/L; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIOXIDANT (LDL) IC50 = 5.53 ΜM;
ANTIPLAQUE MIC = 39–625 ΜG/ML; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTIRADICULAR (600 × THYMOL); ANTISEPTIC
(1.5 × PHENOL); ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC; ANTITUSSIVE; CANDIDICIDE MIC <0.1 ΜG/ML, 100–150 ΜG/ML; CARMINATIVE; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR (= INDOMETHACIN); ENTERORELAXANT; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 1 MG/ML;
TRACHEORELAXANT; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 150 ΜG/ML; VERMIFUGE; LD50 = 810 ORL RAT; LDLO
= 100 ORL RBT.
P-CYMENE — ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC40 = 1.2 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIFLU; ANTIRHEUMATALGIC; ANTIVIRAL; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE IC50 = 50 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; LAXATIVE; SEDATIVE;
TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 50 ΜG/ML; LD50 = 4750 MG/KG ORL RAT.
THYMOL — ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC; ANKYLOSTOMACIDE; ANTIACNE; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 0.75; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC IC50 = 4 ΜM; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 50–400 ΜG/ML; ANTIBRONCHITIC;
ANTICARIOGENICIC MIC = 200–400 ΜG/ML; ANTICHOLINESTERASE; ANTIHALITOSIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY (= INDOMETHACIN); ANTILEPRIC; ANTIMELANOMIC IC50 = 120 ΜM/L; ANTINEURITIC; ANTIOXIDANT 100 PPM; ANTIOXIDANT (LDL) IC50 = 4 ΜM; ANTIPERIODONTIC MIC = 50–200 ΜG/ML; ANTIPLAQUE
MIC = 39–625 ΜG/ML; ANTIRADICULAR EC = 60; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTISALMONELLIC; ANTISEPTIC 20 ×
PHENOL; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC MIC = 200–400 ΜG/ML; ATAXIGENIC;
ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITRICHINOSIC 5%; ANTITUSSIVE; CANDIDICIDE 100 ΜG/ML (>NYSTATIN); CARMINATIVE;
COUNTERIRRITANT; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR (= INDOMETHACIN); DENTIFRICE; DEODORANT; DERMATITIGENIC; ENTERORELAXANT; ENTEROTOXIC; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE; GASTROIRRITANT; GRAM(+)-ICIDE MIC =
200–400 ΜG/ML; GRAM(–)-ICIDE MIC = 50–200 ΜG/ML; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; LARVICIDE 10 PPM, 58
PPM; MOLLUSCICIDE; MYORELAXANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 0.1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; SPROUT-INHIBITOR; TRACHEORELAXANT; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 25 ΜG/ML; URINARY-ANTISEPTIC; VERMICIDE; VERMIFUGE; LD50
= 980 MG/KG ORL RAT; LD50 = 1800 (ORL MUS).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CURCUMA LONGA L. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
INDIAN SAFFRON, TURMERIC
SYNONYM — CURCUMA DOMESTICA VALETON
MEDICINAL USES (TURMERIC) — REGARDED AS CARMINATIVE, CHOLERETIC, DIGESTIVE, STOMACHIC, A CURE
FOR LIVER TROUBLES, TAKEN INTERNALLY FOR TREATING ULCERS, OR EXTERNALLY AS AN OINTMENT TO HEAL SKIN SORES.
BOILED WITH MILK AND SUGAR, IT IS USED AS A COLD REMEDY. REFLECTING THE DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES,
ORIENTALS USE THE RHIZOME FOR JAUNDICE. MOWREY (1988) SAYS TURMERIC’S HEPATOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITY
COMPARES WELL WITH THAT OF MILK THISTLE AND LICORICE. CHINESE CONSIDER THE ROOT ALTERATIVE, ANTIPARASITIC, ANTIPERIODIC, CHOLAGOGUE, DEPURATIVE, HEMOSTAT, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC, AND THEY APPLY IT
EXTERNALLY FOR INFLAMMATIONS, INDOLENT ULCERS, AND PURULENT OPHTHALMIA. THEY USE TURMERIC FOR
ABDOMINAL PAIN, BRUISES, CHEST PAINS, COLIC, COMA, DYSMENORRHEA, EPISTAXIS, FEVER, GAS, HEMATURIA,
HEMATEMESIS, HEPATITIS, SORES, AND TOOTHACHE, AND POULTICE IN ONTO ITCH, RINGWORM, AND SORES. THEY
ALSO EMPLOY TURMERIC FOR ARSENIC POISONING, HEMOPTYSIS, MANIA, POST-PARTUM HEMORRHAGE, AND
PRIMARY SYPHILIS. AYURVEDICS USE TURMERIC AS ALTERATIVE, ANTIPERIODIC, DEPURATIVE, STOMACHIC, AND
TONIC, PERHAPS REFLECTING THE FACT THAT THE EO IS ANTISEPTIC, ANTACID, APERITIF, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC IN
SMALL DOSES, ACTING AS ANTISPASMODIC IN LARGER DOSES. AYURVEDICS ALSO PRESCRIBE FOR BOILS, BILIOUSNESS,
BRUISES, DYSPEPSIA, DYSURIA, ELEPHANTIASIS, INFLAMMATIONS, LEUCODERMA, SCABIES, SMALLPOX, SNAKEBITE,
AND SWELLINGS. IN MADAGASCAR, THE RHIZOME IS USED AS AN APERIENT, ASTRINGENT, CARMINATIVE, CORDIAL,
DETERGENT, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, MATURANT, STIMULANT, AND TONIC. YUNANI PRESCRIBE FOR AFFECTIONS
OF THE LIVER AND JAUNDICE, URINARY DISCHARGES, SCABIES, AND BRUISES. INDIANS EVEN APPLY THE ROOT TO
LEECH BITES. SIMONDS (1999) SAYS THAT, AS A POPULAR INDIAN CULINARY CURRY INGREDIENT AND COSMETIC,
TURMERIC INCREASES THE MUCUS CONTENT IN GASTRIC JUICES AND IS PRESCRIBED FOR STOMACH DISORDERS.
INDIAN WOMEN MIX GROUND TURMERIC WITH WATER TO MAKE A PASTE THAT THEY RUB ON TO CLEAR BLEMISHES
(SIMONDS, 1999). FUMES OF BURNING TURMERIC DIRECTED INTO THE NOSTRILS CAUSE A COPIOUS MUCOUS
DISCHARGE AND RELIEVE THE CONGESTION. TURMERIC IS GIVEN IN DIARRHEA, SO DIFFICULT TO CORRECT IN ATONIC
SUBJECTS. TURMERIC IS USED IN DROPSY AND MALARIA. THE ROOT, PARCHED, AND POWDERED, IS GIVEN IN
BRONCHITIS; THE FUMES ARE USED DURING HYSTERIC FITS. A PASTE MADE OF FRESH RHIZOME IS APPLIED ON
THE HEAD IN CASES OF VERTIGO. TURMERIC AND ALUM IS BLOWN INTO THE EAR IN CHRONIC OTORRHEA. THE
FLOWERS, PASTED, ARE USED IN RINGWORM, OTHER PARASITIC SKIN DISEASES, AND GONORRHEA. CAMBODIANS
CONSIDER THE LEAVES ANTIPYRETIC. POWDERED TURMERIC IS ANTIOXIDANT (BGB, BIB, DAD).
I THINK OF TURMERIC FIRST AS A MEDICINE, QUEEN OF THE NATURAL COX-2-INHIBITORS, AND SECONDLY AS A
SPICE. “TURMERIC IS A SAFER, MORE NATURAL, AND LESS EXPENSIVE COX-INHIBITOR THAN PHARMACEUTICAL COXINHIBITOR DRUGS” (BGB, QUOTING ME). LIKE THE SO-CALLED MIRACLE ASPIRIN OF 1999 (CELEBREX AND VIOXX)
AND THE CENTENARIAN ASPIRIN, TURMERIC RELIEVES PAIN GENTLY, AS ITS CURCUMIN IS A TRIMILLENNIAL COX-2
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INHIBITOR. JOSEPH ET AL. (2002) NOTE THAT THERE’S A FLIP SIDE TO THE POOR AVAILABILITY OF TURMERIC IN THE
STOMACH. THE UPSIDE IS THAT A LOT OF CURCUMIN REMAINS IN THE GI TRACT, WHERE IT APPEARS TO FIGHT COLON
POLYPS AND POSSIBLY COLON CANCER (JNU). UNLIKE CELEBREX AND VIOXX, WHICH INHIBIT ACTIVITIES OF COX2-ENZYMES, CURCUMIN PREVENTS THEIR PRODUCTION IN THE FIRST PLACE (DR. ANDREW DANNEBERG AS QUOTED
IN JNU, 2002). CHRISTIAN JOBIN, PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AT UNC, IS REPORTEDLY CHECKING OUT CURCUMIN
AGAINST OTHER ABDOMINAL DISEASES, LIKE COLITIS AND IBD (JNU).
THE EO OF TURMERIC HAS GREATER ANTIINFLAMMATORY EFFECTS THAN HYDROCORTISONE IN TEST TUBE ARTHRITIS
AND EDEMA (MPI). SOME OF THE ANTIINFLAMMATORY FRACTIONS CAN REDUCE HISTAMINE SIGNIFICANTLY, AT
LEAST IN RAT EPIDERMIS. MILLS AND BONE (2000) GIVE A BRILLIANT SUMMARY, CITING IN VIVO, IN VITRO, AND
SOME CLINICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING TURMERIC’S ANTIHEPATOTOXIC, ANTICANCER, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTIOXIDANT, ANTISEPTIC, ANTITUSSIVE, ANTIVIRAL, CARDIOVASCULAR, DIGESTIVE, AND HYPOLIPIDEMIC ACTIVITIES
(MAB). TURMERIC INCREASED GLUTATHIONE-S-TRANSFERASE ACTIVITY >78% IN ESOPHAGUS, LIVER AND STOMACH, ENOUGH TO BE CONSIDERED CHEMOPREVENTIVE (KHAN AND BALICK, 2001). IN A STUDY OF CLINICAL
APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN STUDIES ON TURMERIC FOR CANCER,
GASTRIC ULCERS, OSTEOARTHRITIS, AND SCABIES. TURMERIC DECREASES SERUM LIPID PEROXIDES AND URINARY
MUTAGENS (KHAN AND BALICK, 2001). AS A COX-2-INHIBITOR, CURCUMIN IS SUCH A GOOD ANTIRHEUMATIC
THAT WHOLE BOOKS HAVE BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT IT (MAJEED ET AL., 1995, NEWMARK AND SCHULICK, IN ED.).
CONTROLLED, DOUBLE-BLIND RESEARCH CONFIRMS THAT CURCUMIN TAKEN INTERNALLY HELPS ARTHRITIS, POSTOPERATIVE INFLAMMATION, AND EDEMA (SWELLING OR FLUID RETENTION). RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS PATIENTS WERE
GIVEN 1200 MG CURCUMIN PER DAY IN A DOUBLE-BLIND STUDY. ALL 49 REPORTED IMPROVEMENT IN MORNING
STIFFNESS, PAIN, AND PHYSICAL ENDURANCE (DEOHDHAR ET AL., 1980). IN A CROSS-OVER STUDY OF 45 OSTEOARTHRITIS PATIENTS, A COMBINATION THERAPY OF CURCUMIN, ASHWAGANDHA, BOSWELLIA, AND ZINC PRODUCED
SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION IN PAIN AND DISABILITY. FORTY-FIVE SURGICAL PATIENTS BETWEEN THE AGES OF 15 AND
68 WERE GIVEN 400 MG CURCUMIN, 100 MG PHENYLBUTAZONE, OR LACTOSE PLACEBO 3 TIMES DAILY FOR 5
DAYS FOLLOWING THEIR OPERATIONS. CURCUMIN SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED EDEMA, INFLAMMATION, AND PAIN
WITH NO SIDE EFFECTS (KULKARNI ET AL., 1991). CURCUMIN’S ABILITY TO REDUCE EDEMA HAS BEEN TESTED
REPEATEDLY ON RATS AND MICE. CHEMICALS THAT CAUSE TEMPORARY EDEMA ARE INJECTED INTO THE SURFACE
OF THEIR FOOT PADS. SOME OF THE RODENTS ARE THEN TREATED WITH CURCUMIN, AND THE SWELLING DIMINISHES
FASTER THAN IN THOSE NOT TREATED (DUKE, 1997, MAJEED ET AL., 1995).
THE COX-2-INHIBITORY ACTIVITY OF CURCUMIN HAS LED SOME TO STUDY TURMERIC FOR ALZHEIMER’S.
SCIENCE NEWS PICKED UP ON THIS, TOO (TRAVIS, 2001), NOTING THAT INDIA HAS ONE OF THE LOWEST
ALZHEIMER’S RATES IN THE WORLD (AND ONE OF THE HIGHEST INTAKES OF CURRY AND CURCUMIN, WHERE TURMERIC
IS NATIVE). IN MICE, DIETARY CURCUMIN REDUCED INFLAMMATION AND FREE RADICAL DAMAGE IN THE MICE
BRAINS (TRAVIS, 2001). LIM ET AL. (2001) NOTE THAT INFLAMMATION IN ALZHEIMER’S PATIENTS IS CHARACTERIZED BY INCREASED CYTOKINES AND ACTIVATED MICROGLIA. EPIDEMIOLOGY SUGGESTS REDUCED AD RISK
WITH LONG-TERM USE OF NSAIDS. CURCUMIN IS A POTENT POLYPHENOLIC ANTIOXIDANT. LIM ET AL. TESTED
LOW (160 PPM) AND HIGH (5000 PPM) DOSES CURCUMIN FOR INFLAMMATION, OXIDATIVE DAMAGE, AND
PLAQUE PATHOLOGY IN RATS. BOTH SIGNIFICANTLY LOWERED OXIDIZED PROTEINS AND INTERLEUKIN-1BETA, A
PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINE ELEVATED IN THE MICE BRAINS. WITH LOW BUT NOT HIGH DOSE, INSOLUBLE BETAAMYLOID (ABETA), SOLUBLE ABETA, AND PLAQUE BURDEN WERE SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED (43–50%). HOWEVER, LEVELS OF AMYLOID PRECURSOR (APP) IN THE MEMBRANE FRACTION WERE NOT REDUCED. MICROGLIOSIS
WAS ALSO SUPPRESSED IN NEURONAL LAYERS, BUT NOT ADJACENT TO PLAQUES. IN VIEW OF EFFICACY AND APPARENT
LOW TOXICITY, TURMERIC SHOWS PROMISE FOR PREVENTING ALZHEIMER’S (X11606625).
CURCUMIN MAY BE EVERY BIT AS PROMISING AS THE SYNTHETIC COX-2-INHIBITORS, ALLEVIATING ARTHRITIS,
GOUT, INFLAMMATION, AND RHEUMATISM, AND POSSIBLY PREVENTING ALZHEIMER’S AND CANCER. BOIK (2001)
CERTAINLY PRAISES CURCUMIN, IF NOT THE MOTHER TURMERIC, AS A CANCER PREVENTIVE. NEARLY 20 IN VITRO
STUDIES SHOW THAT CURCUMIN INHIBITS PROLIFERATION OF SEVERAL CANCER CELL LINES, AT LEVELS OF SOME
5.2–27 ΜM. SOME FOUND IT PREVENTED ANGIOGENESIS AND DECREASED INVASIVENESS. BOIK REPORTS THREE
ANIMAL STUDIES OF CURCUMIN, WHEREIN IT PROLONGED LIFE SPAN OF CANCEROUS RODENTS, INHIBITED TUMOR
GROWTH, OR INHIBITED METASTASIS. CURCUMIN IS A STRONGER ANTIOXIDANT THAN VITAMIN E AT PREVENTING
LIPID PEROXIDATION IN VITRO. WE HAVE ONE PHYTOCHEMICAL WITH MORE THAN TWO DOZEN DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THAT COULD REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER, AND WE HAVE AT LEAST HALF A DOZEN OTHER ANTICANCER
CHEMICALS DOING MANY OF THE SAME THINGS IN SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT LEVELS. I PRESUME THAT IS WHAT
EMBOLDENS BOIK TO PREDICT SYNERGIES AMONG THESE FOOD FARMACEUTICALS. BOLDLY, HE CALCULATES SOME
TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 0.36–3.2 G/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTITUMOR STUDIES), 0.23–3.2
G/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY STUDIES, LEADING TO A TARGET DOSE OF 360–8700 MG/DAY
CURCUMIN). THEN EVEN MORE SPECULATIVELY, HE SUGGESTS THAT SYNERGIES WITH OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS
MAY REDUCE THAT MINIMUM ANTITUMOR DOSE TO 24–580 MG CURCUMIN/DAY, PARALLELING HIS MINIMUM
ANTICANCER DOSAGE OF 100 MG FOR GENISTEIN (E.G., IN BEANS) AND APIGENIN (E.G., IN CELERY), 170 MG
FOR LUTEOLIN, AND 250 MG QUERCETIN THROUGH SIMILAR CALCULATIONS. IF YOU FIND THIS PARAGRAPH ROUGH
SLEDDING, MAY I REFER YOU TO BOIK’S VERY INTERESTING BOOK (BO2).
IN TURMERIC, WE NOTE ANOTHER CASE OF OPPOSING MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS, CURCUMIN INCREASING BILE
SECRETION, BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN DECREASING IT. CAN THE HOMEOSTATIC BODY SELECT THE ACTIVITY IT
NEEDS? I THINK SO. RINZLER (1990) ADDS NOTES THAT TURMERIC IS CHOLERETIC, BUT MANY HERBS, IF NOT ALL,
CONTAIN CHOLERETICS. CHOLERETICS STIMULATE THE PRODUCTION OF BILE, THE BITTER SUBSTANCE THAT EMULSIFIES
FATS IN THE DUODENUM, STIMULATES PERISTALSIS, THEREBY ENCOURAGING MOVEMENT OF FOOD ALONG THE GI
TRACT. TURMERIC IS ALSO A CHOLAGOGUE, WHICH STIMULATES THE BILE DUCT AND GALLBLADDER TO DISCHARGE
BILE, IN THE PROCESS AIDING THE EXCRETION OF CHOLESTEROL. WHILE USEFUL IN MODERATION IN HEALTHY PEOPLE,
CHOLERETICS AND CHOLAGOGUES MAY BE CONTRAINDICATED IN PATIENTS WITH GALLBLADDER OR LIVER DISEASES.
IN MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA (MPI), CURCUMIN IS NOTED TO STIMULATE THE MUSCULATURE OF THE GALL
BLADDER, UNLIKE OTHER BILE STIMULANTS IN USE. CURCUMIN SEEMS TO COMBINE THE CHOLERETIC AND HYDROCHOLAGOGIC ACTIVITIES WITH ANTISEPSIS, PERHAPS MAKING IT IDEAL FOR BILIARY AND GALLBLADDER PROBLEMS
SUSPECTED TO HAVE BEEN CAUSED BY STAPHYLOCOCCUS (MPI). FURTHER, SODIUM CURCUMINATE IS AN ACTIVE
CHOLERETIC, INDUCING NEARLY 100% INCREASE IN BILE PRODUCTION OF ANESTHETIZED DOGS. SODIUM CURCUMINATE ACTS AS A HYDROCHOLAGOGUE. INCREASED BILE SALT EXCRETIONS SEEMS TO SPEAK FOR CURCUMIN IN
DIGESTIVE DISORDERS. EO AND SOME OF ITS DISTILLATES ARE ALSO CHOLERETIC BUT LESS SO.
ASAI AND MIYAZAWA (2001) HINT THAT DIETARY CURCUMINOIDS MIGHT PREVENT ACCUMULATION OF
LIPIDS IN THE LIVER AND EPIDIDYMAL ADIPOSE TISSUES. REPORTING THE ANTIOXIDATIVE, ANTICARCINOGENIC,
AND HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC ACTIVITIES OF CURCUMIN AND OTHER CURCUMINOIDS, THEY ALSO NOTE THAT
DIETARY CURCUMINOIDS HAVE LIPID-LOWERING POTENCY IN VIVO, PROBABLY DUE TO ALTERATIONS IN FATTY
ACID METABOLISM.
NEGI ET AL. (1999) NOTE THAT AFTER CURCUMIN IS PRODUCED INDUSTRIALLY FROM TURMERIC OLEORESIN,
THE MOTHER LIQUOR CONTAINS CA. 40% OIL. FRACTIONS FROM THE OIL WERE TESTED FOR ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY
AGAINST BACILLUS CEREUS, BACILLUS COAGULANS, BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, PSEUDOMONAS
AERUGINOSA, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS. FRACTION II (5% ETHYL ACETATE IN HEXANE) WAS MOST ACTIVE.
AR-TURMERONE, TURMERONE, AND CURLONE WERE MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF SUCH FRACTIONS (X10552805).
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF THE RHIZOME WERE ACTIVE AGAINST ENTAMEBA HISTOLYTICA. SHARMA ET AL. (2000)
SHOWED THAT, THOUGH BACTERICIDAL ON THEIR OWN, EXTRACTS OF BLACK PEPPER, CAPSICUM, AND TURMERIC
PARTIALLY PROTECTED BACILLUS MEGATERIUM, BACILLUS PUMILUS, AND ESCHERICHIA FROM RADIATION, PROBABLY PROTECTING THEIR DNA. CHILE WAS STRONGEST. CURCUMIN AND PIPERINE WERE ALSO CONCLUDED TO
BE RADIOPROTECTIVE.
IN MY PERUVIAN PHARMACY ECOTOURS, I HAVE LONG MAINTAINED THAT I THINK AS MUCH OF THE
INEXPENSIVE PERUVIAN ANTIAIDS COCKTAIL (TURMERIC, CAT’S CLAW, JERGON SACHA) AS I DO OF THE $18,000
ANTIAIDS COCKTAIL BACK IN THE STATES. I DOUBT THAT EITHER WILL ERADICATE THE VIRUS. BUT I’LL WAGER THE
NATURALS WILL HAVE FEWER SIDE EFFECTS, ESPECIALLY FOOD FARMACEUTICALS LIKE TURMERIC. CERTAINLY TURMERIC
HAS ANTI-HIV ACTIVITY. INFECTION WITH HIV INVOLVES A COMPLICATED COMMAND SYSTEM WHICH RESULTS
IN ACTIVATION OR INACTIVATION. ONE CRITICAL PART OF THAT SYSTEM IS THE LONG TERMINAL REPEAT (LTR).
DRUGS THAT INTERFERE WITH LTP CAN DELAY INFECTION AND SLOW PROGRESSION. CURCUMIN INHIBITS ACTIVATION
OF LTR AND DECREASES HIV REPLICATION (MAJEED ET AL., 1995). IN AIDS AND COMPLEMENTARY &
ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE, STANDISH ET AL. (2002) NOTE THAT, IN VITRO, TURMERIC INHIBITS HIV INTEGRASE AND
HIV-1 LTR-DIRECTED TRANSCRIPTION AT FRACTIONAL MICROMOLAR CONCENTRATIONS. TURMERIC MODESTLY
INHIBITS HIV-1 AND -2 PROTEASES. IT ALSO INHIBITS NUCLEAR FACTOR KAPPA B, WHICH REGULATES VIRAL
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TRANSCRIPTION. ALTHOUGH NOT TESTED BY THE NCI, CURCUMIN IS POPULAR AMONG HIV-POSITIVE CAM USERS.
IN ONE POSITIVE STUDY REPORTED BY STANDISH ET AL., 18 HIV PATIENTS WITH CD4 T-CELL COUNTS 5 TO 615
FOUND SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN CD4 T-CELL COUNTS WITH CURCUMIN, CF CONTROLS. LESS POSITIVELY,
CURCUMIN AT NEITHER 2700 MG/DAY NOR 4800 MG/DAY HAD ANY EFFECT ON CD4 T-CELL COUNT OR VIRAL
LOAD. I THINK CURRIED HYSSOP TEA, SWEETENED WITH LICORICE, AND WITH FLOATING HYPERICUM FLOWERS,
MIGHT BE AN EVEN BETTER, THOUGH PERHAPS EQUALLY FUTILE, FOOD FARMACY APPROACH. SEE ALSO LICORICE
(STANDISH ET AL., 2002).
CHENG ET AL. (2001) DEMONSTRATED THAT CURCUMIN IS NOT TOXIC IN ORAL HUMAN DOSES UP TO 8000
MG/DAY FOR 3 MONTHS. THEIR RESULTS ALSO SUGGEST A BIOLOGIC EFFECT OF CURCUMIN IN THE CHEMOPREVENTION
OF CANCER, ESPECIALLY BLADDER CANCER, BOWEN’S DISEASE, CERVICAL CANCER, LEUKOPLAKIA, STOMACH CANCER,
AND UTERINE CANCER (UTERINE CERVICAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASM). URINARY EXCRETION OF CURCUMIN WAS
NOT DETECTABLE. SERUM CONCENTRATIONS OF CURCUMIN USUALLY PEAKED 1–2 HR AFTER INTAKE, GRADUALLY
DECLINING WITHIN 12 HR. THE AVERAGE PEAK SERUM CONCENTRATIONS AFTER TAKING 4000 MG, 6000 MG,
AND 8000 MG OF CURCUMIN WERE CA. 0.5 ΜM, 0.6 ΜM, AND 1.8 ΜM RESPECTIVELY (CHENG ET AL., 2001).
INDICATIONS (TURMERIC) — ABSCESS (1; FNF; TRA); ADENOMA (1; X7954412); ADENOSIS (1; DAD;
JLH; X7954412);); ALLERGY (1; WAM); ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); AMENORRHEA (1; BGB; PH2;
WHO); ANOREXIA (2; BGB; BRU; PHR; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1; KAP; MAB; WAM; WHO); ASTHMA
(1; MAB; WHO); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; MAB; SKY); ATHLETE’S FOOT (1; FNF); BACILLUS (1;
X10552805); BACTERIA (1; FNF; X10552805); BITE (F; BIB; PH2); BLEEDING (F; PED; PH2); BOIL
(1; DAD; WHO); BOWEN’S DISEASE (1; X11712783); BRONCHOSIS (F; BIB; PH2); BRUISE (F; DAV;
PED; PH2; WHO); BURSITIS (1; SKY); CANCER (1; FNF; MAB); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; COX; FNF;
JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (1; X11712783); CANCER, BREAST (1; COX; FNF; MAB); CANCER, CERVIX (1;
X11712783); CANCER, COLON (1; COX; FNF; JLH; JNU); CANCER, DUODENUM (1; X7954412); CANCER,
ESOPHAGUS (1; JAC7:405); CANCER, JOINT (1; JLH; MAB); CANCER, LIVER (1; JAC7:405); CANCER, MOUTH
(1; COX; FNF; JLH); CANCER, NOSE (1; COX; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SINEW (1; COX; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, SKIN (1; X7954412); CANCER, STOMACH (1; JAC7:405); CANCER, UTERUS (1; X11712783);
CARDIOPATHY (1; AKT; MAB); CATARACT (1; MAB); CATARRH (F; UPW); CHEST ACHE (F; PH2); CHILDBIRTH (F; DAD); CHOLECYSTOSIS (2; APA; PHR); CIRCULOSIS (F; BOW); COLD (F; KAP; PH2); COLIC (F;
APA; PED; PH2); COMA (F; DAD); CONGESTION (F; APA; BIB); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; KAB; MAB;
PH2; SUW); CONSTIPATION (F; PH2); CORYZA (F; KAB); CRAMP (1; AKT; BIB; DAD); CYSTOSIS (F;
PH2); DERMATOSIS (1; AKT; MAB; PH2; SUW; WHO; WOI); DIABETES (F; BOW); DIARRHEA (1;
APA; WHO); DROPSY (F; DAD); DUODENOSIS (1; X7954412); DUSGEUSIA (F; KAB); DYSMENORRHEA
(1; AKT; APA; PED; WHO); DYSPEPSIA (2; KOM; MAB; PH2; WHO); DYSURIA (F; DAD); ECZEMA
(1; BGB; KAP; MAB); EDEMA (1; KAP; PH2); ELEPHANTIASIS (F; DAD); ENTEROSIS (1; AKT; DAD;
PH2; WHO); EPILEPSY (F; WHO); EPISTAXIS (F; DAD; PH2); ESOPHAGOSIS (1; JAC7:405); FEVER (1;
APA; BIB; COX); FIBROSIS (1; BGB; MAB); FUNGUS (1; BIB; FNF; PH2); GALLSTONE (1; APA;
MAB); GAS (1; APA; PH2); GASTROSIS (F; PH2); GONORRHEA (F; BIB; KAB); GRAY HAIR (F; HAD);
FUNGUS (1; FNF; LIB); HEADACHE (F; PH2); HEMATEMESIS (F; DAD; PH2); HEMATURIA (F; DAD);
HEMORRHOID (F; MAB); HEPATOSIS (2; FNF; MAB; PED; PHR; PH2; TRA); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
(1; KAP); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; AKT; APA; MAB; TRA); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1; MAB; TRA);
HYPERLIPIDEMIA (1; MAB); HYSTERIA (F; DAD); IBS (1; PED); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INFECTION
(2; FNF; MAB; MPI; PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; PHR; PH2; WAM; WHO); ITCH (F; APA; KAP;
PH2); JAUNDICE (1; MAB; TRA); LARYNGOSIS (1; BIB; COX); LEPROSY (F; PH2); LEUKEMIA (1; AKT);
LEISHMANNIA (1; X10865470); LEUKODERMA (F; DAD); LEUKOPLAKIA (1; X11712783); LYMPHOMA
(1; BIB; COX; FNF); MALARIA (F; KAP; PH2); MANIA (F; DAD); MORNING SICKNESS (1; MAB);
MUCOSOSIS (F; PH2); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; PH2; X8824742); NEMATODE (1; X8221978); NEPHROSIS (1;
AKT; PH2); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); OPHTHALMIA (1; AKT; DAD; PH2); OSTEOARTHROSIS (1; MAB);
OZENA (F; KAB); PAIN (1; BIB; COX; FNF; WHO); PARASITE (F; BIB; DAD; KAP; LIB); POLYP (1;
COX; JLH; JNU); PSORIASIS (1; FNF; MAB); PUERPERIUM (F; MAB); RADIATION (1; AKT); RESTENOSIS
(1; MAB); RHEUMATISM (1; BIB; COX; SKY); RHINOSIS (1; COX; JLH); RINGWORM (F; APA; BIB;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
KAP; PH2); SCABIES (2; BGB); SMALLPOX (F; DAD); SORE (F; PH2); SORE THROAT (F; PH2); SPRAIN
(1; MAB; SUW); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; MPI; UPW); STONE (1; HHB; MAB); STROKE (F; BOW; PH2);
SWELLING (1; AKT; COX; PH2); SYPHILIS (F; DAD); TRAUMA (F; AKT); ULCER (1; BIB; COX; FNF;
PED; WHO); UVEOSIS (2; AKT); VD (F; BIB; DAD); VERTIGO (F; BIB; DAD); VOMITING (F; PH2);
WART (F; JLH); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WHITLOW (F; JLH); WORM (1; X8221978); WOUND (1;
APA; BGB; PH2; SUW; WAM); YEAST (1; PED).
TURMERIC FOR CANCER:
• ANTIEBV: CURCUMIN
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN
• ANTIX-RADIATION: CURDIONE
• ANTIADENOMACARCINOGENIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIAFLATOXIN: CURCUMIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTIANGIOGENIC: BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; CURCUMIN; DEMETHOXYCURCUMIN
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: CURCUMIN; EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMENOL; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; TERPINEOL;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-PINENE; AR-TURMERONE; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE;
BIS-(4-HYDROXY-CINNAMOYL)-METHANE; BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DEMETHOXYCURCUMIN; EUGENOL;
FERULOYL-4-HYDROXYCINNAMOYL-METHANE; GERMACRONE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES;
TETRAHYDROCURCUMIN; TRIETHYLCURCUMIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTILEUKEMIC: 2-HYDROXY-METHYL-ANTHRAQUINONE; CURCUMIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTILYMPHOMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIMETASTATIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; P-COUMARICACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; TETRAHYDROCURCUMIN; TURMERIN; TURMERONOL-A; TURMERONOL-B;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: TERPINEOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; EUGENOL
• ANTISARCOMIC: CURCUMOL; CURDIONE
• ANTISTRESS: GERMACRONE
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: CURCUMIN; EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; AR-TURMERONE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CURCUMIN; CURDIONE; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; PCYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• APOPTOTIC: CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; AR-TURMERONE; BETA-TURMERONE
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: 2-HYDROXY-METHYL-ANTHRAQUINONE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DIP-COUMAROYL-METHANE; DIFERULOYL-METHANE; EUGENOL; FERULOYL-P-COUMAROYL-METHANE; PCOUMARIC-ACID
• FIBRINOLYTIC: CURCUMIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; DI-P-COUMAROYL-METHANE; EUGENOL; PCOUMAROYL-FERULOYL-METHANE
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; TURMERONE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; UKONAN-A
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; LIMONENE
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• PROTEASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• PROTEIN-KINASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID
TURMERIC FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GERMACRONE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LINALOOL
• ANTIEMETIC: CAMPHOR
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-PINENE; AR-TURMERONE; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE;
BIS-(4-HYDROXY-CINNAMOYL)-METHANE; BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DEMETHOXYCURCUMIN; EUGENOL;
FERULOYL-4-HYDROXYCINNAMOYL-METHANE; GERMACRONE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES;
TETRAHYDROCURCUMIN; TRIETHYLCURCUMIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; P-COUMARICACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; TETRAHYDROCURCUMIN; TURMERIN; TURMERONOL-A; TURMERONOL-B;
VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTISTRESS: GERMACRONE
• ANTIULCER: AZULENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN;
EUGENOL; GERMACRONE; ZINGIBERENE
• CARMINATIVE: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; ZINGIBERENE
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; ISOBORNEOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
TURMERIC FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GERMACRONE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LINALOOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AZULENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; O-COUMARICACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; TERPINEOL; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; GERMACRONE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-PINENE; AR-TURMERONE; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE;
BIS-(4-HYDROXY-CINNAMOYL)-METHANE; BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS; DEMETHOXYCURCUMIN; EUGENOL;
FERULOYL-4-HYDROXYCINNAMOYL-METHANE; GERMACRONE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES;
TETRAHYDROCURCUMIN; TRIETHYLCURCUMIN; VANILLIC-ACID
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR;
EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; TERPINEOL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; PCYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; AR-TURMERONE; BETA-TURMERONE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPRYLIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; O-COUMARIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
P-CYMENE; P-METHOXY-CINNAMIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; UKONAN-A
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
OTHER USES (TURMERIC) — CHEAPER AND STRONGER, AND PROBABLY HEALTHIER GRAM FOR GRAM THAN THE
WORLD’S MOST EXPENSIVE SAFFRON, TURMERIC IS SOMETIMES CALLED INDIAN SAFFRON. BOWN (2001) PROPERLY
ADVISES THAT, BECAUSE OF STRONG FLAVOR, ONE MIGHT NOT WISH TO SUBSTITUTE TURMERIC FOR ANNATTO OR
SAFFRON. IT CAN BE USED IN SUCH THINGS AS PICCALILLI (SOMEWHERE BETWEEN A CHUTNEY AND A PICKLE),
POPULAR IN THE U.K., ESPECIALLY AT CHRISTMAS WHEN EATEN WITH HAM AND COLD TURKEY. THE WORD
PICCALILLI APPEARS TO DATE FROM THE 18TH CENTURY, PROBABLY A BLEND OF PICKLE AND CHILLI, THOUGH RECIPES
NOW USE GINGER AND MUSTARD RATHER THAN CHILLI AS THE HOT COMPONENT. PICCALILLI IS BRIGHT YELLOW IN
COLOR DUE TO THE HIGH TURMERIC CONTENT (BOWN, 2001). DRIED RHIZOMES ARE USED AS SPICE, WHOLE OR
GROUND, TO FLAVOR MEAT AND EGG DISHES, AND TO FLAVOR AND/OR COLOR PICKLES, RELISHES, PREPARED MUSTARD,
BUTTER AND CHEESE; AN INDISPENSABLE CONSTITUENT OF CURRY POWDER. INDIAN CHEFS AGREE THAT UNCOOKED
TURMERIC IS TOO EARTHY TO SERVE. THEY OFTEN SIZZLE THEIR POWDERED TURMERIC IN HOT OIL (AAR). MINE
ALMOST TASTES LIKE GINSENG, EVEN WHEN COOKED. MOROCCANS COMBINE SAFFRON AND TURMERIC IN THEIR
“HARIRA SOUP,” CONSUMED AFTER COMPLETION OF THE RAMADAN FAST. MIXED WITH COCONUT OIL, TURMERIC
IMPARTS A SPECIAL FLAVOR TO SEAFOODS AND SOUPS (AAR). IN JAVA, YOUNG RHIZOMES AND SHOOTS ARE ALSO
EATEN IN LABLAB (OCHSE, 1931). IN INDIA THEY ARE EATEN RAW. LEAVES, WRAPPED AROUND FISH, IMPART
THEIR OWN FLAVOR (FAC). IN WEST SUMATRA, LEAVES ARE ESSENTIAL IN “RENDANG,” A TRADITIONAL BUFFALO
DISH (FAC). TURMERIC PROVIDES A NATURAL DYE TO COLOR CLOTH, LEATHER, SILK, PALM FIBER, WOOL, AND
COTTON. SUDANESE USE IT AS A COSMETIC, SMEARING A TURMERIC OINTMENT AROUND THEIR EYES (UPW).
ANECDOTALLY, I HAVE LEARNED OF ONE DOWAGER WHO ACCIDENTALLY DYED HER GRAY HAIR BLONDE WHILE
KILLING LICE WITH A NEEM/TURMERIC FORMULA I HAD RECITED FROM MILLS AND BONE (2000). A PASTE WITH
TURMERIC AND NEEM CURED 97% OF 814 SCABIES PATIENTS WITHIN 3–15 DAYS OF TREATMENT. “NO TOXIC OR
ADVERSE REACTIONS WERE OBSERVED” (MAB). AS A CHEMICAL INDICATOR TURMERIC CHANGES COLOR IN ALKALINE
AND ACID SUBSTRATES. TURMERIC PAPER, PREPARED BY SOAKING UNGLAZED WHITE PAPER IN THE TINCTURE AND
THEN DRIED, IS USED AS A TEST FOR ALKALOIDS AND BORIC ACID. TURMERIC RHIZOMES YIELD 2–6% ORANGE-YELLOW EO (CURCUMIN, UPON OXIDATION BECOMES VANILLIN), USED IN FLAVORING SPICE PRODUCTS AND IN
PERFUMERY (BIB, DAD).
HERE ARE SOME FOOD FARMACY FORMULAE THAT MAY BE OF INTEREST:
GOBO GUMBO — BURDOCK, HEAVY WITH TURMERIC AS POSSIBLE, HEAVILY SPICED WITH BLACK PEPPER
FOR ITS PIPERINE (CAN INCREASE ABSORPTION OF CURCUMIN UP TO TWENTYFOLD), PLUS A DASH OF GRAPEFRUIT
JUICE. ARTHRITIS SUFFERERS MIGHT WISH TO CONSIDER ADDING SOME OR ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ANTIARTHRITIC
FOODS AND SPICES: BLACK CUMIN; CAYENNE (THE HOTTER THE PEPPER, THE LESS THE PAIN; RICH ALSO IN
SALICYLATES), EVENING PRIMROSE (CRUSHED SEED OR BRAN FLAKES), FENUGREEK (DISTASTEFUL TO SOME), GARLIC,
GINGER, JOB’S TEAR (COIX, A WEED IN THE TROPICS), LICORICE (DISTASTEFUL TO SOME), NETTLELEAF (SELFFLAGELLATING AS WELL), ONION (LEAVE THE SKIN ON), OREGANO, PURSLANE, ROSEMARY, SAGE, SAVORY, AND/OR
THYME. SEVERAL OTHER SPICES ARE ALSO WELL ENDOWED WITH COX-2-INHIBITORS.
HIGH COLONIC TEA — IN ADDITION TO GETTING MY 25–35 G FIBER A DAY, STILL FIRMLY BELIEVING
THAT FIBER PREVENTS COLORECTAL CANCER, I HAVE FASHIONED A NEW TEA EMBRACING SOME OF THE BETTER
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
COX-2-INHIBITING SPICES, WITH WHICH I FURTHER IMPROVE THE FLAVOR OF MY COX-2-INHIBITING GREEN
TEA. TO THE USUAL CUP OF TEA, I ADD A SMALL DASH EACH OF UP TO SEVEN OF THE HERBS HIGH IN COX2-INHIBITORS, CHAMOMILE, CLOVE, HOLY BASIL, GINGER, LAVENDER, MARJORAM, OREGANO, ROSEMARY, SAGE,
AND TURMERIC.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (TURMERIC) — PROPAGATED VEGETATIVELY BY FINGERS OR RHIZOMES WITH ONE OR TWO BUDS.
OLDER PLANTING STOCK ROOTS ARE SAID TO YIELD EARLIER. TURMERIC, RARELY GROWN IN PURE STANDS, IS
USUALLY ROTATED WITH EITHER RAGI (ELEUSINE CORACANA GAERTN.), PADDY (ORYZA SATIVA L.), OR SUGARCANE (SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L.), OR MAY BE MIXED WITH CASTORBEANS, CORN, EGGPLANTS, FRENCH
BEANS, RAGI, SUN HEMP, OR TOMATOES. WEST AFRICA, TURMERIC IS CULTIVATED AS A DYE PLANT ALONG WITH
GINGER IN THE FOREST (DAD). SOIL SHOULD BE PLOWED TO 30 CM DEEP AND LIBERALLY MANURED WITH
POTASH AND ORGANIC MANURES. OCHSE ESPECIALLY RECOMMEND STABLE DUNG. MANURE SHOULD BE PLOWED
INTO THE SOIL THREE OR FOUR TIMES. RIDGES 22.5–25 CM HIGH AND 45–55 CM BROAD ARE MADE WITH
FURROWS BETWEEN THE ROWS FOR IRRIGATION. SETS OR FINGERS OF THE PREVIOUS CROP ARE PLANTED DURING
APRIL TO AUGUST, 7.5 CM DEEP AND 30–45 CM APART IN ROWS, AT RATE OF 560–725 KG/HA. PLANTS
SPACED 15 CM BY 15 CM YIELD SIGNIFICANTLY MORE RHIZOMES THAN PLANTS PLACED 30 CM BY 30 CM
OR MORE. PERIODIC WEEDING OR HOEING MAY BE NECESSARY. PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981) SUGGEST 2,4-D
AS A PREEMERGENT HERBICIDE, HINTING THAT SIMAZINE MIGHT ALSO BE EFFECTIVE. ANIMAL MANURES HAVE
DOUBLED YIELDS. IN INDIA, 25 MT FARMYARD MANURE/HA HAS BEEN RECOMMENDED WITH 50 KG EACH
N, P2O5, AND K2O. RHIZOMES SHOULD BE READY TO HARVEST IN 9–10 MONTHS, WHEN LOWER LEAVES TURN
YELLOW. THEY ARE CAREFULLY DUG WITH PICKS (TO AVOID BRUISING), THEN SCALDED WITH HOT WATER TO
GELATINIZE THE STARCH AND TO PREVENT SPROUTING AND MOLDING, THEN SUN DRIED. THE DRIED RHIZOME
IS RUBBED ON A ROUGH SURFACE OR TRAMPLED TO REMOVE THE OUTER SKIN AND GIVE AN ATTRACTIVE COLOR
AND POLISH. SPRINKLING WATER DURING POLISHING DIFFUSES THE COLOR THROUGHOUT THE RHIZOME. IN INDIA,
RAIN FED YIELDS OF 7–9 MT/HA ARE REPORTED, 17–22 IRRIGATED.
CHEMISTRY (TURMERIC) — THE WEALTH OF INDIA INDICATES 50 IU VITAMIN A/100 G. SEE PURSEGLOVE
ET AL. (1981) FOR STRIKING DIFFERENCES IN THE CHEMICALS FOUND IN THE EOS OF C. AROMATICA, C. DOMESTICA,
C. XANTHORRHIZA, AND C. ZEDOARIA. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN TURMERIC.
FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
AR-TURMERONE — ANTIHEMORRHAGIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILYMPHOCYTIC; ANTINKC; ANTIOPHIDIC;
ANTIPROLIFERATIVE; ANTITUMOR; INSECTIFUGE.
CURCUMIN — SEE ALSO COSTUS SPECIOSUS.
CURCUMOL — SEE ALSO CURCUMA ZEDOARIA.
CURDIONE — SEE ALSO CURCUMA ZEDOARIA.
TURMERIN — ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; DNA-PROTECTANT.
TURMERONE — CHOLERETIC; HEPATOTONIC; INSECTIFUGE.
ZINGIBERENE — SEE ALSO CURCUMA ZEDOARIA.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CURCUMA XANTHORRHIZA ROXB. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
TEMU LAWAK
VERY CLOSELY RELATED TO ZEDOARY. IMPORTANT IN INDONESIAN JAMU.
MEDICINAL USES (TEMU LAWAK) — IN SINGAPORE AS “UBAT JAMU” AND “UBAT MAAJU,” IT IS USED FOR
MANY THINGS, INCLUDING INDIGESTION. IN PERAK, IT IS USED IN INFUSION FOR DYSPEPSIA AND RHEUMATISM.
IT IS USED TO BRING ON THE PERIOD IN AMENORRHEA AND AS A PUERPEREAL TONIC. IT IS ALSO PASTED OVER THE
BODY FOLLOWING CHILDBIRTH. IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, IT HAS A DESERVED REPUTATION AS A CHOLERETIC AND
CHOLAGOGUE (BRU). BECAUSE OF ITS REPUTATION FOR THE LIVER IN THE DUTCH INDIES, IT HAS GAINED A
REPUTATION IN HOLLAND FOR GALLSTONES (IHB).
YASNI ET AL. (1994) IDENTIFIED THE MAJOR COMPONENT (APPROX. 65%) OF THE EO AS ALPHA-CURCUMENE.
RATS FED EO OR HEXANE-SOLUBLE FRACTION HAD LOWER HEPATIC FATTY ACID SYNTHASE ACTIVITY. ALPHACURCUMENE IS ONE OF THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES EXERTING TRIGLYCERIDE-LOWERING ACTIVITY IN TEMU LAWAK
(X8157222). MATA ET AL. (2001) FOUND XANTHORRHIZOL MODESTLY ACTIVE AGAINST GRAM(+) AND GRAM(–)
BACTERIA, INCLUDING BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ENTEROCOCCUS FAECUM, KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, INCLUDING METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AND VANCOMYCIN-RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCUS. IT WAS SCARCELY ACTIVE AGAINST CANDIDA ALBICANS (MIC = 128 ΜG/ML). AT 128 AND 64 ΜG/ML, IT
INHIBITED DNA AND RNA SYNTHESIS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS. HWANG ET AL. (2000) COMPARED THE
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF XANTHORRHIZOL WITH CHLORHEXIDINE AGAINST ORAL MICROORGANISMS IN COMPARISON. XANTHORRHIZOL HAS SHOWN BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY AGAINST STREPTOCOCCUS, MAKING IT POTENTIALLY
USEFUL AT PREVENTING CARIES (X10844172). CAMPOS ET AL. (2000) DESCRIBED THE CALCIUM-CHANNELBLOCKING, ENDOTHELIUM-INDEPENDENT RELAXATION, AND VASORELAXING ACTIVITIES OF XANTHORRHIZOL AT DOSES
OF 1–100 ΜG/ML. XANTHORRHIZOL IS ASSUMING NEW IMPORTANCE AS A COX-2-INHIBITOR.
PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) NOTED THAT DIETARY CURCUMIN SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED LIPASE, MALTASE,
AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES. LIN ET AL. (1995) FOUND THAT EXTRACTS REDUCED SERUM TRANSAMINASE LEVELS
INDUCED BY HEPATOTOXINS. EXTRACTS REDUCED LIVER DAMAGE 24 HR AFTER IPR ADMINISTRATION OF HEPATOTOXINS. THE AUTHORS CONCLUDE THAT TEMU LAWAK COULD BE USEFUL IN TREATING LIVER INJURIES AND HAS
PROMISE AS A BROAD SPECTRUM HEPATOPROTECTIVE AGENT (X8571920).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INDICATIONS (TEMU LAWAK) — ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF; JAD); AMENORRHEA (F; IHB); ANOREXIA
(2; PHR; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; FNF; JAD); BACILLUS (1; JNP64:911); BACTERIA (1; X10844172);
CANCER (1; COX; FNF); CANDIDA (1; JNP64:911); CARDIOPATHY (1; JNP64:911); CARIES (1;
X10844172); CHILDBIRTH (F; IHB); CHOLECYSTOSIS (2; PHR; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (2; FNF; KOM; PH2);
ENTEROCOCCUS (1; JNP64:911); ENTEROSIS (F; BRU); ESCHERICHIA (1; JNP64:911); FULLNESS (F; PH2);
FUNGUS (1; FNF; JNP64:911); GALLSTONE (F; IHB); GAS (1; PH2); GASTROSIS (1; BRU); HEPATOSIS (2;
HHB; IHB; PHR; PH2); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1; X8157222); INFECTION (1; X10844172); INFLAMMATION (1; COX; FNF); JAUNDICE (F; HHB); KLEBSIELLA (1; JNP64:911); MYCOSIS (1; JNP64:911); PAIN
(1; COX; FNF) RHEUMATISM (1; COX; FNF; IHB); STONE (F; IHB; HHB); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1;
JNP64:911); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; PM66:196).
TEMU LAWAK FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIISCHEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; TURMERONE; XANTHORRHIZOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: CURCUMIN
• HYPOTENSIVE: CURCUMIN
• SEDATIVE: BORNEOL
TEMU LAWAK FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEBV: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIHEPATOSIS: CURCUMIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BORNEOL; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTIOXIDANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTIVIRAL: AR-CURCUMENE; CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; TURMERONE; XANTHORRHIZOL
• CHOLAGOGUE: CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• CHOLERETIC: CURCUMIN; TURMERONE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• DETOXICANT: CURCUMIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; CURCUMIN
• HEPATOTONIC: TURMERONE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CURCUMIN
TEMU LAWAK FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BORNEOL; CURCUMIN; CURCUMINOIDS
• ANTIVIRAL: AR-CURCUMENE; CURCUMIN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; TURMERONE; XANTHORRHIZOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• FUNGICIDE: ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; CURCUMIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CURCUMIN
OTHER USES (TEMU LAWAK) — ANOTHER SPICY GINGER RELATIVE, TEMU LAWAK IS ALSO A SOURCE OF
STARCH, USED IN MAKING ORIENTAL PORRIDGES OR PUDDINGS. ROOTS LIKE THOSE OF TURMERIC AND ZEDOARY
ARE YELLOW TO ORANGE, ESPECIALLY THE OLDER ROOTS. THE STARCH IS RENDERED GRATING THE RHIZOME
AND KNEADING THE GRATINGS IN WATER ABOVE A SIEVE, REPEATING FOR SEVERAL DAYS. A BEVERAGE IS
MADE BY BOILING THE RHIZOMES IN WATER AND SWEETENING. HEARTS OF THE STEM AND TIPS OF THE
RHIZOMES ARE EATEN RAW. COOKED INFLORESCENCES ARE SERVED WITH RICE (FAC). THE PLANT IS ALSO
USED IN LOCAL DYES (IHB).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (TEMU LAWAK) — BOTANICALLY CLOSELY RELATED TO TURMERIC, TEMU LAWAK IS CULTIVATED
IN INDONESIA, WHERE IT, LIKE MANY MEMBERS OF THE GINGER FAMILY, IS IMPORTANT IN JAMU, THE TRADITIONAL
INDONESIAN MEDICINE. PROBABLY TREATED AND CULTIVATED LIKE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE GINGER FAMILY. THE
RHIZOME IS CUT AFTER HARVEST (BRU).
CHEMISTRY (TEMU LAWAK) — BRUNETON (1999) NOTES THAT THE PLANT IS RICH IN SESQUITERPENES, LIKE
BISACUMOL, BISACUROL, BISACURONE, AR-CURCUMENE, TURMERONES, (R)-(+)-XANTHORRHIZOL, AND ZINGIBERENE. CURCUMINOIDS (1–2%) INCLUDE CURCUMIN AND IS A MONODEMETHOXYLATED DERIVATIVE AS WELL AS
DI-, HEXA-, AND OCTAHYDROGENATED DERIVATIVES (BRU). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS
FOUND IN TEMU LAWAK. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-CURCUMENE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTITUMOR; HYPOTRIGLYCERIDEMIC.
AR-CURCUMENE — ANTIRHINOVIRAL IC50 = 1750; ANTIULCER IC45 = 100 MG/KG; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 1750;
STOMACHIC.
CURCUMIN — SEE ALSO COSTUS SPECIOSUS.
CURCUMINOIDS — SEE ALSO COSTUS SPECIOSUS.
TURMERONE — SEE ALSO CURCUMA LONGA.
XANTHORRHIZOL — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; ARTEMICIDE; BACILLICIDE MIC = 16 ΜG/ML; CALCIUMCHANNEL-BLOCKER; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 69 ΜG/ML; CYTOTOXIC EC50 = 4.9 ΜG/ML; FUNGICIDE MIC =
69 ΜG/ML; GRAM(+)-ICIDE MIC = 16–32 ΜG/ML; GRAM(–)-ICIDE MIC = 16–32 ΜG/ML; MYORELAXANT;
UTERORELAXANT; VASORELAXANT.
ZINGIBERENE — ANTIRHINOVIRAL; ANTIULCER IC54 = 100 MG/KG; CARMINATIVE; INSECTICIDE.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CURCUMA ZEDOARIA (CHRISTM.) ROSCOE (ZINGIBERACEAE)
KUA, ZEDOARY
SYNONYM — AMOMUM ZEDOARIA CHRISTM.
MEDICINAL USES (ZEDOARY) — CONSIDERED ANTIPYRETIC, APHRODISIAC, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, DEMULCENT, EXPECTORANT, STOMACHIC, STIMULANT, AND TONIC. FRESH RHIZOMES HAVE DIURETIC PROPERTIES AND ARE
USED IN CHECKING LEUCORRHEA AND GONORRHEAL DISCHARGES AND FOR PURIFYING THE BLOOD. RHIZOMES ARE
SIMPLY CHEWED TO ALLEVIATE COUGH (DEP). A DECOCTION OF THE RHIZOME ADMINISTERED ALONG WITH LONG
PEPPER, CINNAMON, AND HONEY IS SAID TO BE BENEFICIAL FOR COLDS, FEVERS, BRONCHITIS, AND COUGHS.
MIXED WITH BLACK PEPPER, LICORICE, AND SUGAR, IT IS USED FOR BRONCHITIS AND COUGH (DEP). RHIZOMES
ARE AN IMPORTANT INGREDIENT OF PRESERVES GIVEN AS A TONIC TO WOMEN AFTER CHILDBIRTH. EXTERNALLY, THE
RHIZOME IS APPLIED AS A PASTE MIXED WITH ALUM, TO SPRAINS AND BRUISES. ASIAN INDIANS APPLY THE ROOT
TO DERMATITIS, SPRAINS, ULCER, AND WOUNDS (UPW). JUICE OF LEAVES IS GIVEN FOR DROPSY (DEP, WOI).
ZEDOARY IS A FOOD, SO THERE’S LITTLE CAUSE FOR CONCERN WITH RATIONAL USE. WOMEN WHO EXPERIENCE A
HEAVY MENSTRUAL FLOW SHOULD AVOID TAKING LARGE DOSAGES. EXTREMELY LARGE AMOUNTS OF CURCUMINOIDS,
MORE THAN YOU ARE LIABLE TO INGEST, MIGHT CAUSE ULCERS OR CANCER, OR MIGHT REDUCE THE NUMBER OF
RED AND WHITE CORPUSCLES IN THE BLOOD (DUKE, 2000).
CONTAINING UP TO 0.1% CURCUMIN, ZEDOARY, LIKE TURMERIC AND GINGER, MAY BE VIEWED AS A COX-2-
INHIBITOR, OF POTENTIAL USE IN ALZHEIMER’S, ARTHRITIS, AND CANCER. YOSHIOKA ET AL. (1998) DEMONSTRATED THE
ANALGESIC, ANTIEDEMIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTIOXIDANT, AND RADICAL-SCAVENGING POTENCY OF DEHYDROCURDIONE, THE MAJOR COMPONENT OF ZEDOARY. CURCUMOL AND CURDIONE ARE REGARDED IN THE ORIENT AS EFFECTIVE
ANTICANCER COMPOUNDS, ESPECIALLY FOR CERVICAL CANCER AND LYMPHOSARCOMA. POLYSACCHARIDE FRACTIONS
DECREASE TUMOR SIZES IN MICE AND PREVENT CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION. ONE FRACTION, AT 6.25 MG/KG/DAY
INHIBITED SOLID TUMOR GROWTH 50% (KIM ET AL., 2000, X10987135). USED WITH SUCCESS IN CHINESE STUDIES
OF CERVICAL CANCER AND IN IMPROVING THE EFFICACY OF CHEMOTHERAPY AND RADIATION (BOWN, 2001).
CONSIDERING CAM HIV TREATMENTS, STANDISH ET AL. (2002) DISCUSS ACA (ALSO CALLED PERTHON),
A WESTERNIZED VERSION OF AN ASIAN COMBO OF ELEVEN HERBS INCLUDING SOME SPICES DISCUSSED IN THIS
BOOK, CINNAMON, CLOVES, MYRRH, SUMATRA BENZOIN, AND ZEDOARY. THE COMBO RECEIVED AN INVESTIGATIONAL NEW DRUG (IND) STATUS FROM THE FDA IN 1994 BASED ON PRELIMINARY AUSTRALIAN-COLLECTED DATA.
FIFTEEN HIV-POSITIVES TREATED FOR UP TO 2 YEARS SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED RE BODY WEIGHT AND
CD4+/CD8+ RATIOS (STANDISH ET AL., 2002).
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INDICATIONS (ZEDOARY) — ADENOSIS (F; DAA; KAB); ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF; JAD); ANOREXIA (F;
KAB; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; FNF; JAD); ASTHMA (F; KAB; PH2); BRONCHOSIS (F; DEP; KAB; KAP;
PH2); BRUISE (F; DEP; KAB; KAP; SUW); CANCER (1; DAA; FNF); CANCER, CERVIX (1; FNF; JAD; PH2);
CANCER, COLON (1; COX; FNF; JLH; PH2); CANCER, LIVER (1; COX; FNF; JLH; PH2); CANCER, UTERUS (1;
DAA; FNF); CARDIOPATHY (1; X10973625); CERVICOSIS (1; BOW); CHILDBIRTH (F; DEP; KAB); COLD (1;
DEP; FNF; SUW; WOI); COLIC (F; HDR); CONVULSION (F; KAB); COUGH (F; KAP); CRAMP (1; PH2);
DEBILITY (F; PH2); DERMATOSIS (F; DEP); DROPSY (F; KAB; UPW); DYSPEPSIA (F; BOW; PH2); ENTEROSIS
(F; PH2); EPILEPSY (F; KAB); FEVER (F; DEP; KAB); FURUNCLE (F; KAB); GAS (1; FNF; KAP; WOI);
GASTROSIS (F; PH2); GONORRHEA (F; KAB; KAP); HALITOSIS (F; KAB); HEMATOMA (F; DAA); HEMORRHOID
(F; KAB); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH); INFLAMMATION (1; COX; FNF; KAB); JAUNDICE (F; SKJ); LEUKODERMA (F;
PH2); LEUKORRHEA (F; KAB; KAP); LYMPHADENOSIS (F; KAB); LYMPHAGOSIS (F; KAP); LYMPHOSARCOMA
(1; DAA; FNF); MALAISE (F; KAB); NAUSEA (F; BOW); NEUROSIS (F; PH2); PAIN (1; COX; DEP; FNF;
SUW); RHEUMATISM (1; COX; FNF); SORE THROAT (F; DEP; KAP); SPLENOSIS (F; KAB); SPRAIN (F; DEP;
KAB; KAP); TOOTHACHE (F; KAB); TUBERCULOSIS (F; PH2); VERTIGO (F; KAB); WOUND (F; KAB; PH2).
ZEDOARY FOR ALZHEIMER’S:
• ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTICHOLINESTERASE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; CURCUMIN
• ANTIISCHEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CURCUMIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CURCUMIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CURCUMIN
• CNS-STIMULANT: 1,8-CINEOLE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; BETA-TURMERONE; AR-TURMERONE
• CHELATOR: CURCUMIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• METAL-CHELATOR: CURCUMIN
ZEDOARY FOR RHEUMATISM:
• 12-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIARTHRITIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CURCUMIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BIS-DESMETHOXYCURCUMIN; CURCUMIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CURCUMIN
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CURCUMIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; BETA-TURMERONE; AR-TURMERONE
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE
OTHER USES (ZEDOARY) — PRIMARILY CULTIVATED FOR THE STARCHY TUBERS THAT PROVIDE THE SHOTI STARCH
OF COMMERCE. IT IS USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR ARROWROOT AND BARLEY AND IS HIGHLY REGARDED AS A DIET FOOD
FOR INFANTS AND CONVALESCENTS. NEARLY ALL THE STARCH IS AMYLOSE AND GIVES A HIGHLY VISCOUS PASTE WITH
WATER. A RED POWDER, “ABIR,” IS PREPARED FROM POWDERED RHIZOMES BY TREATMENT WITH A DECOCTION OF
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SAPPAN WOOD. ABIR IS USED IN HINDU RELIGIOUS RITUALS. “GHISI ABIR” MIXES ZEDOARY WITH ARTEMISIA,
CARDAMOM, CERASUS, CLOVES, AND DEODAR. YOUNG RHIZOMES ARE DICED AND ADDED TO SALADS. STEAM
DISTILLATION OF THE RHIZOMES YIELDS 1–1.5 IO OF A LIGHT YELLOW VOLATILE EO. THE CORES OF YOUNG SHOOTS
ARE EATEN (FAC). FRESH LEAVES, SCENTED LIKE LEMONGRASS, MAY BE USED AS A VEGETABLE OR USED FOR
SEASONING FISH. ZEDOARY IS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF LIQUEURS, VARIOUS ESSENCES, AND BITTERS, AND IN
COSMETICS AND PERFUMES (FAC, UPW). DRIED RHIZOMES SPICE VARIOUS BITTERS, E.G., SWEDISH BITTERS,
AND LIQUEURS, LIKE ITALY’S “RAMAZZOTTI.” SINGERS CHEW THE RHIZOME TO CLEAR THEIR THROATS (FAC, UPW).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (ZEDOARY) — PROPAGATED EXCLUSIVELY FROM DIVISIONS OF THE RHIZOMES. THESE ARE CUT
INTO PIECES BEARING BUDS AND PLANTED IN RAKED SOIL AT THE BEGINNING OF THE MONSOON SEASON. BOWN
(2001) SUGGESTS WELL-DRAINED SOIL WITH AMPLE HUMIDITY AND TROPICAL CLIMATE WITH MIN TEMP 13°C
(55°F). THEY ARE USUALLY CULTIVATED IN SHADED DECIDUOUS FORESTS OR ALONG SHADED IRRIGATION CHANNELS.
A 2-YEAR PERIOD IS REQUIRED FOR THE FULL DEVELOPMENT OF THE RHIZOMES.
CHEMISTRY (ZEDOARY) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ZEDOARY. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CURCUMOL — ANTISARCOMIC; ANTITUMOR (CERVIX).
CURDIONE — ANTILEUKOPENIC; ANTISARCOMIC; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (CERVIX); ANTI-X-RADIATION.
DEHYDROCURDIONE — ANALGESIC 40–200 MG/KG; ANTIARTHRITIC 120 MG/KG/DAY/12 DAYS; ANTIEDEMIC
200 MG/KG; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTIRADICULAR 100–5000 ΜM; CALCIUMCHANNEL-BLOCKER 0.1–1 MM.
ZINGIBERENE — ANTIRHINOVIRAL; ANTIULCER IC54 = 100 MG/KG; CARMINATIVE; INSECTICIDE.
CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS (DC.) STAPH (POACEAE)
LEMONGRASS, WEST INDIAN LEMONGRASS
SYNONYM — ANDROPOGON CITRATUS DC.
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MEDICINAL USES (LEMONGRASS) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, ANTISEPTIC, ANTISPASMODIC, CARMINATIVE,
DEPURATIVE, DIAPHORETIC, DIGESTIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, PECTORAL, STIMULANT, AND
TONIC. THE EO IS RUBEFACIENT AND USED EXTERNALLY FOR CHRONIC RHEUMATIC AILMENTS, LUMBAGO, AND
SPRAINS. IT IS ALSO CARMINATIVE, DIAPHORETIC, SPASMODIC, STIMULANT, AND TONIC, USED INTERNALLY FOR
CATARRH, FEBRILE CONDITIONS, AND GAS. WITH BLACK PEPPER, IT IS GIVEN IN CONGESTIVE AND NEURALGIC FORMS
OF DYSMENORRHEA, DIARRHEA, AND DROPSICAL CONDITION CAUSED BY MALARIA AND VOMITING. TEA MADE
FROM THE LEAVES IS A STOMACHIC TONIC; WITH BUTTERMILK, IT IS USED TO TREAT RINGWORM. LEAVES ALSO USED
IN VAPOR BATH. ORIENTALS ADD THE LEAVES TO BATHS TO STOP BODY ODOR, REDUCE SWELLING, IMPROVE
CIRCULATION, AND TO TREAT BLADDER TROUBLES, CUTS, LEPROSY, SKIN ERUPTIONS, AND WOUNDS. ORIENTALS ALSO
USE IT FOR ASTHMA, CONVULSIONS, HEMOPTYSIS, OPPRESSION, PUERPERIUM, SPRAINS, AND TOOTHACHE. LATIN
AMERICANS CHEW THE RHIZOME UNTIL FRAYED, THEN USE IT AS A TOOTHBRUSH. IT IS BOILED WHOLE, WITH DIRT
ATTACHED TO THE ROOT, AS AN ABORTIFACIENT.
LEUNG AND FOSTER (1995) REPORTS ANTIOXIDANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EO, WHICH SENSATIONALISTS
MIGHT PROMOTE AS INCREASING LONGEVITY. ALPHA-CITRAL (GERANIAL) AND BETA-CITRAL (NERAL) INDIVIDUALLY
ELICIT ANTIBACTERIAL ACTION ON GRAM(–) AND GRAM(+) ORGANISMS. MYRCENE DID NOT SHOW OBSERVABLE
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY ON ITS OWN. BUT MYRCENE, ALSO ANESTHETIC, ENHANCED ACTIVITIES WHEN MIXED
WITH EITHER OF THE OTHER TWO MAIN COMPONENTS. HERE’S ANOTHER HINT THAT THE WHOLE HERB IS BETTER
THAN ITS INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS (LIL). SOME FOLK USES ARE NOT HOLDING UP TO SCIENTIFIC SCRUTINY. ONE
UNPUBLISHED DOCUMENT IN THE USDA FILES IS ENTITLED “LEMONGRASS, THE MEDICINE THAT WASN’T.” I
THINK MORE HIGHLY OF IT (DAD, LIL).
ACCORDING TO ANON (1998), LEMONGRASS OIL, LIKE THAT OF ORANGE AND PEPPERMINT, WILL “KILL MOST
STRAINS OF FUNGAL AND BACTERIAL INFECTIONS.” IN A STUDY OF 52 PLANT OILS AND EXTRACTS FOR ACTIVITY AGAINST
ACINETOBACTER BAUMANII, AEROMONAS VERONII BIOGROUP SOBRIA, CANDIDA ALBICANS, ENTEROCOCCUS
FAECALIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI BACTERIA, KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE, PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA, SALMONELLA
ENTERICA SUBSP. ENTERICA SEROTYPE TYPHIMURIUM, SERRATIA MARCESCENS, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS,
HAMMER ET AL. (1999) NOTED THAT LEMONGRASS, OREGANO, AND BAY INHIBITED ALL ORGANISMS AT CONCENTRATIONS OF ≤ 2.0% (X10438227). LEMONGRASS, EUCALYPTUS, PEPPERMINT, AND ORANGE OILS, WERE
EFFECTIVE AGAINST 22 BACTERIAL STRAINS. AEGLE AND PALMAROSA OILS INHIBITED 21 BACTERIA; PATCHOULI AND
AGERATUM OILS INHIBITED 20 BACTERIA (INCLUDING GRAM (+) AND GRAM (–). TWELVE FUNGI WERE INHIBITED
BY CITRONELLA, GERANIUM, LEMONGRASS, ORANGE, PALMAROSA, AND PATCHOULI OILS. THE MIC OF EUCALYPTUS,
LEMONGRASS, PALMAROSA, AND PEPPERMINT OILS RANGED FROM 0.16 TO > 20 ΜL/ML FOR 18 BACTERIA AND
0.25–10 ΜL/ML FOR 12 FUNGI (X8893526).
VAPORS OF SEVERAL EOS ARE ACTIVE AGAINST DERMATOPHYTES, LIKE TINEA AND TRICHOPHYTON. OF THOSE
SEVEN STUDIED BY INOUYE ET AL. (2001), CINNAMON WAS MOST POTENT, FOLLOWED BY LEMONGRASS, THYME,
AND PERILLA (CHISO) OILS, WHICH KILLED THE CONIDIA AND INHIBITED GERMINATION AND HYPHAL ELONGATION
AT 1–4 ΜG/ML AIR (X11413931).
APHID (APHIS GOSSYPII) POPULATIONS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED WITH LEMONGRASS EXTRACT PREPARED
BY GRINDING 10 G GREEN LEAF IN 1 LITER OF WATER (DAD, LIL).
INDICATIONS (LEMONGRASS) — ACID INDIGESTION (F; DAV); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ATHLETE’S FOOT (1;
BOW); BACKACHE (F; AAB); BACTERIA (1; AAB; FNF; PH2); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF; PH2; TRA); BRUISE
(F; MPG); CANCER (1; JNU); CANDIDA (1; X10438227); CATARRH (F; MPG); CHOLERA (F; MPI; SKJ);
COLD (1; AAB; FNF; TRA); CONGESTION (1; FNF); COUGH (1; APA; FNF; MPG; TRA); CRAMP (1;
AAB; APA; FNF; MPG); DERMATOSIS (F; APA); DIABETES (F; HHB); DIARRHEA (F; APA); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAV); DYSPEPSIA (F; APA; IED; MPG); DYSURIA (F; JFM); ENTEROSIS (F; APA; DAV; JFM;
MPG; PH2); ESCHERICHIA (1; X10438227); EXHAUSTION (F; KOM); FEVER (1; APA; DAV; IED; PH2;
TRA); FLU (1; APA; FNF; MPG; TRA); FUNGUS (1; AAB; FNF); GAS (F; TRA); GASTROSIS (F; AAB;
APA; DAV; MPG; PH2); GINGIVOSIS (F; JFM); HEADACHE (F; AAB; SKJ); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (2; FNF;
MPG); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; APA; MPG; PH2; TRA); GAS (F; APA; PH2); HEADACHE (F; WBB);
INFECTION (1; DAA; FNF; JBU); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); INSOMNIA (F; APA); KLEBSIELLA (1;
X10438227); LEPROSY (1; PH2; WBB); LUMBAGO (F; PH2); MALARIA (F; JFM; SKJ); MYCOSIS (1;
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
X10438227); MYOSIS (1; AAB; KOM); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEURALGIA (F; KOM; MPG; PH2);
PAIN (1; AAB; APA; FNF; JBU; PH2); PARASITE (F; PH2); PEDICULOSIS (F; BOW); PNEUMONIA (F;
JFM); PULMONOSIS (F; MPG); PYORRHEA (F; JFM); RHEUMATISM (F; APA; PH2); RINGWORM (F; APA);
SALMONELLA (1; X10438227); SCABIES (1; BOW); STOMACHACHE (F; DAA; DAV; MPG; TRA); TOOTHACHE (F; WBB); TUBERCULOSIS (F; JFM); UTI (F; MPG); WOUND (F; MPG); YEAST (1; AAB; FNF).
LEMONGRASS FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CITRAL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; DIPENTENE; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; MYRCENE; NERAL; NEROL;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CITRAL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: LINALYL-ACETATE; LUTEOLIN; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NEROL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; HCN; LUTEOLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; DIPENTENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: CITRAL; LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; CITRAL; DIPENTENE; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
LEMONGRASS FOR PAIN:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; FARNESOL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; LUTEOLIN; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; LUTEOLIN; RUTIN
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL;
CITRONELLOL; DIPENTENE; FARNESOL; GERANIOL; GERANYL-ACETATE; ISOVALERIC-ACID; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; NEROL
OTHER USES (LEMONGRASS) — VERY IMPORTANT IN ASIAN COOKERY, LEMONGRASS LEAF BLADES ARE USED
FOR TEAS, BUT THE FIBROUS STEMS ARE USED IN CUISINE, FLAVORING BEEF, FISH, POULTRY, SEAFOOD, AND TYPICAL
THAI AND VIETNAMESE SOUPS. SKINNED CHICKEN, BOILED WITH TWO STALKS, IS GREAT COLD OR IN COLD SALADS.
THE JUICIER LOWER END OF THE STALK IS SMASHED WITH OTHER SPICES TO SEASON INDONESIAN SPICED COCONUT
MILK WITH CRAB, THAI CURRIES, AND VIETNAMESE MARINATED BEEF (AAR). ASIANS BLEND IT SKILLFULLY WITH
CHILES OR WITH COCONUT MILK. BASAL PORTIONS OF THE LEAFY SHOOTS ARE CHOPPED TO FLAVOR CURRIES, FISH,
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SOUPS, AND SAUCES. CENTER OF TENDER STEMS IS USED IN CURRY POWDERS. OUTER LEAVES ARE TIED IN LOOPS
AND COOKED WITH FOOD AS A FLAVORANT; THEY ARE REMOVED BEFORE SERVING. JAPANESE ADD TO SPICED
SHERBET. HEARTS OF THE YOUNG SHOOTS ARE EATEN WITH RICE. LEMONGRASS IS SUBSTITUTED FOR YOGURT IN
THE PREPARATION OF “NISTISEMOS TRAHANAS” (FASTING TRAHANAS), A FERMENTED MILK AND CEREAL FOOD. THIS
TYPE OF TRAHANAS IS USED DURING RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS IN GREECE AND TURKEY, WHEN IT WOULD BE SACRILEGIOUS TO CONSUME ANIMAL MILKS (FAC). OIL DISTILLED FROM LEAVES IS USED AS A POPULAR INGREDIENT
OF FOOD AND DRINKS. ACCORDING TO LEUNG (1995), LEMONGRASS OIL (GRAS §182.20) IS USED IN MOST
MAJOR FOOD CATEGORIES, INCLUDING ALCOHOLIC AND NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, FROZEN DAIRY DESERTS, CANDY,
BAKED GOODS, GELATINS AND PUDDINGS, MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS, AND FATS AND OILS, AT ABOUT 33 PPM
AND 36 PPM FOR HIGHEST AVERAGE MAXIMUM USE LEVELS FOR CANDY AND BAKED GOODS, RESPECTIVELY. IT
IS ALSO USED IN CREAMS, LOTIONS, AND PERFUMES WITH MAXIMUM USE LEVEL AT 0.7% OIL IN THE PERFUMES.
CITRAL, PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENT OF THE EO, VARIES WITH AGE FROM 78–85%. OIL IS A GOOD SOURCE OF
SYNTHETIC VIOLET ODOR (IONONES), USED TO PERFUME SOAPS, BATH SALTS, AND COSMETICS. IT IS ONE MAJOR
SOURCE OF VITAMIN A. OIL IS USED IN THE U.S. FOR FURNITURE POLISH. THE RHIZOME IS USED TO FLAVOR
TOBACCO. LEMONGRASS RESIDUE WITH SALT IS READILY EATEN BY CATTLE AND GIVES NO FLAVOR RESIDUE IN MILK
FROM COWS FED THE PULP.
ONE OF AMERICA’S BEST SELLING HERBAL TEAS (1978), “RED ZINGER,” CONTAINS, IN ADDITION TO
LEMONGRASS, HIBISCUS FLOWERS, ROSE HIPS, ORANGE PEEL, AND PEPPERMINT LEAVES. WILD CHERRY BARK IS
BEING PHASED OUT OF THIS POPULAR TEA, BECAUSE IT IS DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN. I’VE MADE A “RED ZAPPER”
LIQUEUR BY STEEPING MY “RED RINGER” TEA BASE IN VODKA. I HAVE MADE MY “RED RINGER” WITH
LEMONBALM AND PEPPERMINT FOR THE SNAP, BERGAMOT PETALS OR WILD CHERRIES FOR THE RED, AND ROSEHIPS
FOR THE VITAMINS.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (LEMONGRASS) — IN THE TEMPERATE ZONE, A LARGE POTTED FROST-SENSITIVE LEMONGRASS IN
A SUN-PARLOR OR SUNNY WINDOW CAN PROVIDE FOR A FAMILY. IT CAN BE OUTPLANTED DURING THE FROST FREE
SEASON, SUBDIVIDING AND BRINGING UNDER GLASS FOR WINTER (LIL). TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) SAY
THE FROST SENSITIVE PLANT DOES BEST IN FULL SUN, WELL DRAINED SANDY, MOIST BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WET, SOIL
PH 4.3–8.4 (AVERAGE 6.0) SOIL TEMPERATURES 64°–100°F (18°–38°C), RELATIVE HUMIDITY 40–100. TOPS
ARE KILLED AT 28°F (–2°C) (TAD). SINCE SEED RARELY IF EVER FORM, PROPAGATION IS MAINLY BY DIVISION
OF CLUMPS. DIVISION, 25–50 FROM A MATURE CLUMP, ARE SEPARATED BY TEARING THEM OFF BASE OF PLANT,
RETAINING A FEW ROOTS ON EACH. BEFORE PLANTING, TOPS OF DIVISIONS ARE CUT BACK TO ABOUT 7.5 CM.
SOMETIMES DIVISIONS ARE TORN OFF MATURE PLANTS LEFT IN PLACE. A COMPLETE FERTILIZER, CONTAINING
AMMONIUM SULFATE, CALCIUM SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND POTASSIUM SULFATE, AT RATE OF 100 KG/HA, AND CALCIUM
HYDRATE, IS APPLIED AT BOTTOM OF FURROWS JUST BEFORE PLANTING. APPLICATION OF AMMONIUM NITRATE,
UREA, AND IAA ENHANCES VEGETATIVE GROWTH (FRESH WEIGHT OF LEAVES MORE THAN 60%) WITH CONCOMITANT
INCREASE OF VOLATILE OILS AND THEIR MAIN CONSTITUENTS (MPI). PLANTS OR STOOLS ARE SET IN EARLY SPRING
IN ROWS 1 M APART, SPACED ABOUT 45 CM APART IN ROWS. PLANTING IS DONE JUST AFTER A RAIN, OR AT A TIME
WHEN SUFFICIENT MOISTURE IS AVAILABLE NOT TO REQUIRE ARTIFICIAL WATERING. IRRIGATION BEST BE FREQUENT
AS LEMONGRASS IS SHALLOW ROOTED AND DOES NOT TOLERATE MUCH WATER STRESS. PLANTING MAY BE MECHANICAL. POTASH IS REQUIRED IN FLORIDA SOIL. AS SOON AS PLANTS BECOME WELL ESTABLISHED IN FIELD, SIDE
APPLICATION OF FERTILIZER IS ADDED AND WELL WORKED IN AT FIRST CULTIVATION. CULTIVATION SHOULD BE
FREQUENT THROUGHOUT SPRING TO CONSERVE MOISTURE AND THROUGHOUT SUMMER TO CONTROL WEEDS, AS A
FEW ILL-SMELLING WEEDS IN CROP AT HARVEST TIME MAY GREATLY DAMAGE ODOR OF OIL. AFTER FIRST YEAR,
ONLY SLIGHT CULTIVATION IS NECESSARY, AS A WELL-ESTABLISHED LEMONGRASS STAND TENDS TO RETARD WEED
GROWTH. ON SOME SOILS, POTASH INCREASES WEIGHT OF GRASS, BUT N PLUS K PRODUCES HIGHEST YIELDS, UP
TO 41 TONS/HA. NO ADDITIONAL FERTILIZER IS REQUIRED FOR RATOON CROP. UNDER IRRIGATED CONDITIONS,
LEMONGRASS CAN REMOVE 186 KG/HA N, 26 P AND 384 K. IN INDIA, HILLSIDES ARE BURNED IN JANUARY TO
BURN DOWN THE OLD USELESS STRAW; 6 MONTHS LATER, THE FRESH CROP IS READY TO CUT (DAD). FIRST CUTTING
SHOULD BE MADE 4–5 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING, WHEN PLANTS ARE 75–100 CM TALL, CLUMPS 20–25 CM IN
C
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DIAMETER. IN FALL OF FIRST YEAR, A SECOND CUTTING IS MADE. AFTER THE FIRST YEAR, SPRING GROWTH IS MORE
RAPID, AND YOU CAN TAKE THREE HARVESTS A YEAR. MECHANICALLY HARVEST BY MOWING WITH BLADE ADJUSTED
TO CUT PLANTS 20 CM ABOVE GROUND. CUT MATERIAL RAKED UP WITH HORSERAKE RUN CROSSWISE OF ROWS.
CLOSER CUTTING IS NOT PROFITABLE BECAUSE OF LOW OIL CONTENT IN LOWER PORTION OF PLANT. HARVEST BY
HAND WITH A MACHETE. EQUIPMENT FOR DISTILLATION OF LEMONGRASS OIL IS THE SAME AS FOR OTHER VOLATILE
OILS. PLANTS ARE PASSED THROUGH A FODDER CUTTER, CUT INTO ABOUT 5 CM LENGTHS, AND LOADED ABOUT 45
KG/2 CM M OF SPACE IN RETORT. IN RETORT OF 10 CU M, A CHARGE OF 1.5 TONS CAN BE DISTILLED IN 2–2.5
HOURS BY STEAM. DISTILLATION UNDER 20 LB PRESSURE INCREASES YIELD OF OIL, BUT OIL IS DARK AND OF LOW
CITRAL CONTENT. AFTER OIL IS DISTILLED AND FREED OF WATER, IT IS DRIED BY SHAKING WITH ANHYDROUS CALCIUM
CHLORIDE AND FILTERED. IN THE WEST INDIES, SEA OR SALT WATER DISTILLATION INCREASES YIELD OF OIL AND
PRODUCES A BETTER QUALITY OIL THAN FRESH WATER. YIELDS OF GRASS VARY FROM 18–30 MT/HA (FRESH WEIGHT)
FOR FIRST CUTTING, 6.2–10 MT/HA FOR RATOON CUTTING. FRESH YIELDS REPORTED AS HIGH AS 140 MT/HA
(DAD). OIL YIELDS MAY RUN 10–40 LB/A (LIL). MAXIMUM OIL YIELDS ARE 419 LITERS/HA (45 GALLONS/ACRE)
WHEN CUT AT 60-DAY INTERVALS (TAD).
CHEMISTRY (LEMONGRASS) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN LEMONGRASS.
FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CITRAL—ADI = 500 ΜG/KG; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIHISTAMINIC;
ANTISEPTIC 5.2 × PHENOL; ANTISHOCK; BARBITURATE-SYNERGIST; BRONCHORELAXANT; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE MIC 625 ΜG/ML; GLAUCOMAGENIC; HERBICIDE IC50 = 115 ΜM; NEMATICIDE IC52 = 100 ΜG/ML,
MLC = 100–260 ΜG/ML; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 1.19 ΜM; PROSTATITIGENIC 185 MG/KG/DAY/3
MS; SEDATIVE ED 1–32 MG/KG; TERATOGENIC; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 150 ΜG/ML; TYROSINASEINHIBITOR ID50 = 1.5 MM; LD50 = 4960 ORL RAT; ADI 0.5 GM/KG.
CITRONELLAL — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC 3.8 × PHENOL; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC; CANDIDACIDE; EMBRYOTOXIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; MOTOR-DEPRESSANT; MUTAGENIC?; NEMATICIDE MIC 1 MG/ML; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 1.56 ΜM; SEDATIVE ED = 1 MG/KG; TERATOGENIC;
LD50 = >5000 MG/KG ORL RAT.
CITRONELLOL — ADI = 500 ΜG/KG; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC;
CANDIDICIDE; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE IC50 = 160 ΜM; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 100 ΜG/ML;
SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 300 ΜG/ML; LD50 = 4000 IMS MUS.
GERANIOL — ANTHELMINTHIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 64 ΜG/ML, MIC = 400 ΜG/ML, MBC = 800 ΜG/ML;
ANTICANCER; ANTICARIOGENIC MIC = 400 ΜG/ML; ANTIMELANOMIC IC50 = 150 ΜM/L; ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL
MIC = 64 ΜG/ML PL; ANTISALMONELLA MIC = 400 ΜG/ML; ANTISEPTIC MIC = 64 ΜG/ML, 400–800
ΜG/ML, 7 × PHENOL; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUBERCULAR MIC = 64 ΜG/ML; ANTITUMOR (PANCREAS) IC50 =
265 ΜM; ASCARICIDE; CANDIDICIDE; CNS-STIMULANT; EMBRYOTOXIC; EMETIC (3 × IPECAC); EXPECTORANT;
FUNGICIDE IC93 = 2 MM; HERBICIDE IC100–2000 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE 50 PPM; INSECTIPHILE; NEMATICIDE
IC86 = 100 ΜG/ML; MLC = 1000 ΜG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 300 ΜG/ML; LD50 =
3600 MG/KG ORL RAT.
GERANYL-ACETATE — INSECTIPHILE; SEDATIVE; ADI = 500 ΜG/KG.
MYRCENE — SEE ALSO ALPINIA GALANGA.
D
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
D
DIPTERYX ODORATA (AUBL.) WILLD. (FABACEAE)
DUTCH TONKA BEAN, TONGA BEAN, TONKA BEAN, CUMARU, TONQUIN
SYNONYMS — COUMAROUNA ODORATA AUBL., COUMAROUNA PUNCTATA BLAKE
MEDICINAL USES (TONKA BEAN) — THE PLANT IS USED AS AN ANTICOAGULANT, ANTIDYSPEPTIC, ANTIPYRETIC,
ANTITUSSIVE, CARDIOTONIC, DIAPHORETIC, FUMIGANT, NARCOTIC, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC (DAV). THE FLUID
EXTRACT HAS BEEN RECOMMENDED IN WHOOPING COUGH. IN CHINA, SEED EXTRACTS ARE USED RECTALLY FOR
SCHISTOSOMIASIS. GUYANESE USE THE ASTRINGENT GUM FOR SORE THROAT. BRAZILIANS APPLY THE SEED OIL FOR
BUCCAL ULCERS AND EARACHE. BLACK CARIBS ARE SAID TO USE THE FRUITS AS AN APHRODISIAC (CRC). BRAZILIANS
MAKE A COUGH PILL BY BALLING UP THE CRUSHED SEED. IN PERU, SEEDS SOAKED IN RUM (ALIAS “AGIADIENTE”)
ARE USED BY LOCALS FOR SNAKEBITE, CONTUSIONS, AND RHEUMATISM. WAYÃPI INDIANS USE THE BARK DECOCTION
AS ANTIPYRETIC BATHS; PALIKUR AS FORTIFYING BATHS FOR INFANTS.
THE SPICE PLANT IS USED IN FOLK REMEDIES FOR CACOETHES, CANCERS, INDURATIONS, AND TUMORS,
ESPECIALLY OF THE DIAPHRAGM, ABDOMEN, LIVER, SPLEEN, STOMACH, AND UTERUS (HARTWELL, 1982). I THINK
OF THE COUMARIN AS MORE CHECKING THAN CAUSING CANCER, AT LEAST IN REASONABLE DOSES. L-DOPA (FROM
FABA AND VELVET BEANS) MAY POSSIBLY ACTIVATE MALIGNANT MELANOMAS, WHICH, HOWEVER, CAN BE CHECKED
BY 100 MG/DAY COUMARIN, FOUND IN THE TONKA BEAN. MARLES ET AL. (1987) AND TISSERAND (1995) HAVE
DISPELLED THE MYTH OF THE CARCINOGENICITY AND TOXICITY OF COUMARIN, NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH THE
FURANOCOUMARINS. MARLES ET AL. (1987) SUGGEST THAT THE POTENTIAL FOR COUMARIN TOXICITY TO HUMANS
IS QUITE LOW, IF THE SUBJECT HAS NORMAL LIVER FUNCTION. “COUMARIN DOES NOT APPEAR TO HAVE ANTICOAGULANT, CARCINOGENIC, MUTAGENIC, TERATOGENIC, OR ALLERGENIC PROPERTIES” (MARLES ET AL., 1987). TISSERAND (1995) CONCLUDED RATHER ADAMANTLY THAT “COUMARIN CANNOT BE REGARDED AS HEPATOTOXIC IN
HUMANS.” IN CLINICAL TRIALS, ONLY 0.37% OF PATIENTS DEVELOPED ABNORMAL LIVER FUNCTION (REVERSIBLE).
MOST (OF >2000) PATIENTS GOT 100 MG/DAY COUMARIN FOR 1 MONTH, FOLLOWED BY 50 MG/DAY FOR 2 YR.
ONLY 8 PATIENTS DEVELOPED ELEVATED LIVER ENZYME LEVELS, WHICH RETURNED TO NORMAL FOLLOWING
COUMARIN CURTAILMENT (TISSERAND, 1995). COUMARIN IS, HOWEVER, A HIGHLY ACTIVE, INTERESTING COMPOUND. REPORTED TO ANESTHETIZE AND DEPRESS THE HEART AND RESPIRATORY RATES. IN A REVIEW OF MORE
THAN 300 COUMARINS, INCLUDING THE TONKA COUMARIN (1,2-BENZOPYRONE), HOULT AND PAYA (1996) NOTE
COUMARIN’S LONG-ESTABLISHED EFFICACY IN SLOW-ONSET LONG-TERM REDUCTION OF LYMPHEDEMA IN MAN
(CONFIRMED IN RECENT DOUBLE-BLIND TRIALS FOR ELEPHANTIASIS AND POSTMASTECTOMY SWELLING). THE MECHANISM MAY POSSIBLY INVOLVE MACROPHAGE-INDUCED PROTEOLYSIS OF EDEMA PROTEIN. COUMARIN HAS LOW
ABSOLUTE BIOAVAILABILITY IN MAN (< 5%), DUE TO EXTENSIVE FIRST-PASS HEPATIC CONVERSION TO 7-HYDROXYCOUMARIN FOLLOWED BY GLUCURONIDATION. IT MAY, THEREFORE, BE A PRO-DRUG.
INDICATIONS (TONKA BEAN) — BACTERIA (1; FNF); BRUCELLOSIS (1; FNF); BRUISE (F; DAV);
CACHEXIA (F; APA; CRC); CANCER, KIDNEY (1; FNF); CANCER, PROSTATE (1; FNF); CANKER (1; CRC;
FNF); CARDIOPATHY (F; DAW); COUGH (F; DAV); CRAMP (F; APA; CRC); DIABETES (1; FNF); DYSPEPSIA (F; DAW); EARACHE (1; CRC; FNF); EDEMA (1; FNF); ELEPHANTIASIS (2; X8853310); ESCHERICHIA (1; FNF); FEVER (1; DAV; FNF); FUNGUS (1; FNF); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1; FNF); INFECTION (1;
FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); INSOMNIA (1; FNF); LYMPHEDEMA (2; X8853310); LYMPHOMA (1;
FNF); MELANOMA (1; FNF); METASTASIS (1; FNF); MONONUCLEOSIS (1; FNF); MYCOPLASM (1; FNF);
D
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MYCOSIS (1; FNF); NAUSEA (F; APA; CRC; DAD); NEPHROSIS (1; FNF); PAIN (1; FNF); PERTUSSIS (F;
APA; CRC; FEL; PHR; PH2); PROSTATOSIS (1; FNF); PSITTACOSIS (1; FNF); RHEUMATISM (1; DAV;
FNF); SCHISTOSOMIASIS (F; CRC; DAD); SNAKEBITE (F; DAV); SORE (1; CRC; FNF); SORE THROAT (F;
CRC); SPASM (F; CRC); STOMATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF); TOXOPLASMOSIS (1; MAB); TUBERCULOSIS (1;
APA); ULCER (1; CRC; FNF).
TONKA BEAN FOR CANCER:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIANDROGENIC: COUMARIN
• ANTICANCER: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: BETULIN; FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BETULIN; COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; SALICYLIC-ACID;
UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIMELANOMIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMETASTATIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: FERULIC-ACID; LUPEOL; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: LUPEOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTITUMOR: BETULIN; COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; LUPEOL; RETUSIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: BETULIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: COUMARIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: BETULIN; LUPEOL; RETUSIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: FERULIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: UMBELLIFERONE
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: COUMARIN
• LYMPHOKINETIC: COUMARIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: FERULIC-ACID
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• SUNSCREEN: FERULIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
TONKA BEAN FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANTIBACTERIAL: FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; O-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIEDEMIC: COUMARIN; LUPEOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: BETULIN; COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; SALICYLIC-ACID;
UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTILYMPHEDEMIC: COUMARIN
• ANTISEPTIC: SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIVIRAL: BETULIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL
• BACTERISTAT: COUMARIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
D
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: SALICYLIC-ACID
• FUNGICIDE: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; O-COUMARIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• FUNGISTAT: P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: UMBELLIFERONE
OTHER USES (TONKA BEAN) — D. ODORATA, D. OPPOSITIFOLIA (SYN. OF TARALEA OPPOSITIFOLIA AUBL.),
AND D. PTEROPUS ARE CULTIVATED FOR THE SEED, WHICH YIELD COUMARIN, USED TO GIVE A PLEASANT FRAGRANCE
TO TOBACCO, A DELICATE SCENT TO TOILET SOAPS, AND A PIQUANT TASTE TO LIQUEURS (EB2:337). EXTRACT IS
ALSO USED IN FOODSTUFFS, E.G., BAKED GOODS, CAKES, CANDIES, COCOA, ICE CREAM, PRESERVES, AND AS A
SUBSTITUTE FOR VANILLA; AS A FIXING AGENT IN MANUFACTURING COLORING MATERIALS; IN SNUFFS; AND IN THE
PERFUME INDUSTRY. BLACK CARIBS OF NICARAGUA CELEBRATE “MAYPOLE” FESTIVITIES WHEN THE CENTRAL
AMERICAN SPECIES D. OLEIFERA IS RIPE. THE CARIBS MAKE A PASTE OF THE SEEDS, MIX IT WITH COCONUT
WATER OR MILK, AND MAKE A RICH NUT-FLAVORED BEVERAGE, MORE SATISFYING THAN A MALTED MILK (CRC,
FAC). THE MOST IMPORTANT USE OF COUMARIN IN THE U.S. IS FOR FLAVORING TOBACCO. COUMARIN HAS BEEN
MORE MALIGNED THAN DESERVED (UNLIKE FURANOCOUMARINS). MORE THAN A CENTURY AGO, THE ECLECTICS
SAID TONKA DEPENDS UNDOUBTEDLY UPON COUMARIN FOR ITS VIRTUES; IT’S NARCOTIC EFFECTS FROM COUMARIN,
WHICH IS ALSO A CARDIAC STIMULANT, CAN PARALYZE THE HEART. DR. LAURENCE JOHNSTON ATTRIBUTES THE EFFECTS
OF CIGARETTE SMOKING TO THIS PRINCIPLE, SINCE SUBSTANCES USED IN PREPARING CIGARETTES ARE PLANTS WHICH
CONTAIN COUMARIN, NOTABLY LIATRIS ODORATISSIMA (FEL).
AROUND EXPLORAMA LODGE, IQUITOS, PERU, THE TIMBER OF THIS HUGE BUTTRESSED TREE, OR A CLOSELY
RELATED CONGENER, IS USED FOR BRIDGES, DORMERS, POSTS, ETC. THE BUTTRESSES ARE USED TO MAKE JUNGLE
TELEGRAPHS, THE FLAT DRUMS MADE FROM SUCH BUTTRESSES. THE EDIBLE SOLITARY COUMARINIFEROUS SEED IS
IMBEDDED IN A CLAM-LIKE SHELL, AND SEVERAL OF THESE ARE STRUNG ON A WAISTELET (BRACELET-LIKE WAIST
BAND) WHICH CLATTERS LIKE CASTANETS WHEN ONE DANCES.
THE TIMBER IS SAID TO BE RESISTANT TO MARINE BORERS, PERHAPS BECAUSE IT CONTAINS 0.01% SILICON
DIOXIDE. AND FROM THE NEW CD, FORESTRY COMPENDIUM (CAB INTERNATIONAL, 2000), ONE CAN FIND
SEVERAL FORESTRY DESCRIPTORS: ROUND WOOD, TRANSMISSION POLES, POSTS, STAKES, BUILDING POLES, SAWN OR
HEWN BUILDING TIMBERS FOR HEAVY CONSTRUCTION, BEAMS FOR LIGHT CONSTRUCTION, CARPENTRY/JOINERY,
FLOORING, SHINGLES, RAILWAY SLEEPERS, WOODWARE, INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC WOODWARE, TOOL HANDLES,
SPORTS EQUIPMENT, WOOD CARVINGS, TURNERY, FURNITURE, BOATS, VEHICLE BODIES, PULP, SHORT FIBRE PULP.
FOR MORE INFORMATION, THE CAB INTERNATIONAL E-MAIL ADDRESS IS CABI@CABI.ORG.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (TONKA BEAN) — USUALLY HARVESTED FROM THE WILD, BUT SOMETIMES CULTIVATED IN
PLANTATIONS OR PLANTED AS WINDBREAKS FOR CACAO. PROPAGATION USUALLY BY SEED, BUT THE TREES CAN BE
PROPAGATED BY BUDDING, CUTTINGS, AND MARCOTTAGE. SEEDS LOSE VIABILITY SOON AFTER RIPENING. GERMINATION TAKES PLACE IN 4–6 WEEKS FOR WHOLE SEEDS, AND IN 1–2 WEEKS FOR ENDOCARPLESS SEEDS. SEED
SHOULD BE SOWN IN PLACE AS THEY DO NOT TRANSPLANT WELL. NO PARTICULAR CULTIVATION IS REQUIRED IN
NATIVE REGIONS. BOWN (2001) RECOMMENDS WELL-DRAINED GRAVELLY OR SANDY SOIL, WITH AMPLE RAINFALL
AND HUMIDITY. BULK OF CROP IS STILL PRODUCED FROM WILD TREES (CRC). THE RIPE SEEDS AFTER REMOVAL
FROM THEIR SHELLS (SHELLS MADE INTO CASTANETS) ARE DRIED IN THE SHADE AND THEN IMMERSED IN 65%
ALCOHOL FOR A HALF DAY. THE ALCOHOL IS THEN POURED OFF AND THE BEANS ALLOWED DRY 5–6 DAYS IN THE
SHADE. IN THIS, THEY ACCUMULATE AN EXTERIOR “FROST” OF THE COUMARIN CRYSTALS (ANON, 1948).
CHEMISTRY (TONKA BEAN) — SHOWING HOW LITTLE WE KNOW ABOUT TROPICAL FOREST PRODUCTS, 138
VOLATILE CONSTITUENTS WERE FOUND, 131 OF WHICH HAVE NOT PREVIOUSLY BEEN DESCRIBED AS TONKA-BEAN
CONSTITUENTS. ONE COMPOUND, UNDECYLFURAN, IDENTIFIED FOR THE FIRST TIME IN NATURE, COULD BE USED AS
A MARKER FOR TONKA BEAN, OFTEN USED AS AN ADULTERANT OR FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTE FOR VANILLA. TONKA
BEANS ARE A RICH SOURCE OF COUMARIN, TO 3.5% ZMB; DEER TONGUE, TO 1.6%; WOODRUFF, TO 1.3%; PERU
BALSAM SEEDS, 0.4%; JUJUBE LEAVES, 0.3%; AND SWEET CLOVER, TO 0.2% COUMARIN, ON A DRY WEIGHT
D
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BASIS (ZMB). DEER’S TONGUE, AT 1.6% COUMARIN, IS SECOND ONLY TO THE TONKA BEAN AS A CHEAP SOURCE
OF THE CONTROVERSIAL COUMARIN. TOO MANY ALARMISTS WARN ABOUT THE TOXICITY OF THE SWEET-SMELLING
COUMARIN, USED TO MAKE THE POOR MAN’S VANILLA. LEST YOU BE FRIGHTENED OFF, LET ME REMIND YOU THAT
COUMARIN IS THE ODOR THAT GIVES NEW-MOWN HAY ITS PLEASING AROMA. COUMARIN IS THE LACTONE OF CISO-HYDROXYCINNAMIC ACID. RELATED COMPOUNDS OCCUR AS BOUND COUMARIN IN SWEET CLOVER (MELILOTUS
SPP) AND OTHER AROMATIC SPECIES LIKE SWEET VERNAL GRASS, VANILLA GRASS, AND WOODRUFF. THE DERIVATIVE
DICOUMAROL IS A SERIOUS ANTICOAGULANT. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN TONKA
BEAN. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
COUMARIN — ALLELOCHEMIC IC100 = 2 MM; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIANDROGENIC; ANTIBRUCELLOSIC; ANTICANCER 5–25 ΜG/ML; ANTIDIURETIC; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILYMPHEDEMIC; ANTIMELANOMIC 50 MG/DAY; ANTIMETASTATIC 50 MG/MAN/DAY;
ANTIMITOTIC; ANTIMONONUCCLEOTIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIMYCOPLASMOTIC; ANTIPSITTACOTIC; ANTIPSORIAC; ANTITOXOPLASMOTIC; ANTITUMOR 50 MG/DAY; ANTITUMOR (KIDNEY) 400–7000 MG/DAY; ANTITUMOR
(PROSTATE) 400–7000 MG/DAY; BACTERISTAT; BRUCHIPHOBE; CARCINOGENIC 200 MG/KG ORL MUS; CARDIODEPRESSANT; CARDIOTONIC; DME-INHIBITOR IC50 = 57.5 ΜM; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; EMETIC; ESTROGENIC; FUNGICIDE; HEMORRHAGIC; HEPATOTOXIC 0.8–1.71 MM/KG ORL RAT, 2500 PPM DIET, 100 MG/KG
DOG; HYPNOTIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC 250–1000 MG/KG ORL; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; JUVABIONAL; LARVISTAT;
LYMPHOCYTOGENIC 100 MG/DAY; LYMPHOKINETIC; NARCOTIC; OVICIDE; PHAGOCYTOGENIC; PISCICIDE;
RESPIRADEPRESSANT; RODENTICIDE; SEDATIVE; LD50 = 202 ORL GPG; LD50 = 293 ORL RAT; LD50 = 680
ORL RAT; LD50 = 720 ORL RAT.
LINOLEIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC;
ANTICANCER; ANTICORONARY; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC; ANTIGRANULAR; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 31 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 = 31 ΜM; ANTIMENORRHAGIC; ANTI-MS; ANTIPROSTATITIC; CARCINOGENIC; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; IMMUNOMODULATORY; INSECTIFUGE;
METASTATIC; NEMATICIDE.
OLEIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 21 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 = 21 ΜM; CHOLERETIC 5 ML/MAN; DERMATITIGENIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; PERCUTANEOSTIMULANT; LD50 = 230 IVN MUS; LDLO = 50 IVN CAT.
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
E
ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM (L.) MATON (ZINGIBERACEAE)
CARDAMON, MALABAR OR MYSORE CARDAMON
SYNONYM — AMOMUM CARDAMOMUM L.
MEDICINAL USES (CARDAMON) — RANKED AS THE WORLD’S THIRD MOST EXPENSIVE SPICE (SAFFRON NUMBER
ONE, VANILLA NUMBER TWO), CARDAMOM IS ALMOST AS GOOD A MEDICINE AS IT IS A SPICE, BUT THERE ARE
CHEAPER ALTERNATIVES. AS MCCORMICK (1981) NOTES, “THE VALUE OF SPICES TO EUROPEANS IN THE LATE
MIDDLE AGES CAN HARDLY BE IMAGINED TODAY. A HANDFUL OF CARDAMOM WAS WORTH AS MUCH AS A POOR
MAN’S YEARLY WAGES. MANY A SLAVE WAS BOUGHT AND SOLD FOR A FEW HANDFULS OF PEPPERCORN”
(MCCORMICK, 1981). REPORTED TO BE ANTIDOTAL, APERITIF, BALSAMIC, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, STIMULANT,
AND STOMACHIC. FINELY POWDERED SEED ARE SNUFFED FOR HEADACHE. CARDAMOMS, FRIED AND MIXED WITH
MASTIC AND MILK, ARE USED FOR BLADDER PROBLEMS (DEP). FOR NAUSEA AND VOMITING, THEY ARE MIXED
INTO A POMEGRANATE SHERBET. THE SEEDS ARE POPULARLY BELIEVED TO BE APHRODISIAC (DAD, DEP).
ELGAYYAR ET AL. (2001) COMPARED ANTISEPTIC ACTIVITY OF SEVERAL EOS AGAINST SELECTED PATHOGENIC
AND SAPROPHYTIC MICROBES (ANISE, ANGELICA, BASIL, CARROT, CELERY, CARDAMOM, CORIANDER, DILL WEED,
FENNEL, OREGANO, PARSLEY, AND ROSEMARY). OREGANO WAS STRONGEST, INHIBITING ALL TEST STRAINS (LISTERIA
MONOCYTOGENES, STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, YERSINIA ENTEROCOLITICA, PSEUDOMONAS
AERUGINOSA, LACTOBACILLUS PLANTARUM, ASPERGILLUS NIGER, GEOTRICHUM, AND RHODOTORULA) AT AN MLC
CA. 8 PPM. INHIBITION WAS COMPLETE FOR OREGANO, COMPLETELY NIL WITH CARROT OIL.
SO FAR, CARDAMOM IS THE RICHEST SOURCE OF 1,8-CINEOLE IN MY DATABASE. THAT CAN BE GOOD, THAT
CAN BE BAD. CINEOLE CAN ENHANCE DERMAL ABSORPTION OF OTHER DRUGS, TEMPORARILY SPEEDING UP
TRANSDERMAL ABSORPTION OF TOPICAL DRUGS. BUT IN THE LONG RUN, IT MAY NULLIFY THIS ADVANTAGE, BY
INDUCING DETOXIFICATION ENZYMES. YES, LIKE HYPERICIN AND HUNDREDS OF OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS EATEN
DIETARILY EVERY DAY, 1,8-CINEOLE INDUCED P450 DETOXICATION. AS BLUMENTHAL ET AL. (1998), IN THEIR
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TRANSLATION OF COMMISSION E, REMIND US THAT CINEOLE INDUCES LIVER DETOXIFICATION ENZYMES, THEREBY
REDUCING THE LONGEVITY AND/OR EFFECTIVENESS OF MANY NATURAL AND PRESCRIPTION DRUGS. UNDER MYRTLE,
WHICH CONTAINS A THEORETICAL MAXIMUM (AS CALCULATED IN FNF) OF 2250 PPM CINEOLE, GRUENWALD
ET AL. (1998) CAUTION THAT MORE THAN 10 G MYRTLE OIL CAN THREATEN LIFE, “DUE TO THE HIGH CINEOLE
CONTENT” (MYRTLE CONTAINS 135–2250 PPM CINEOLE ACCORDING TO MY CALCULATIONS, MEANING 10 G MYRTLE
WOULD CONTAIN A MAXIMUM 22.5 MG CINEOLE). SEVERAL HERBS MAY ATTAIN HIGHER LEVELS OF CINEOLE:
BAY, BEEBALM, BETEL PEPPER, BIBLICAL MINT, BOLDO, CAJEPUT, CARDAMOM, EUCALYPTUS, GINGER, GREATER
GALANGAL, HORSEBALM, HYSSOP, LAVENDER, NUTMEG, ROSEMARY, SAGE, SPEARMINT, STAR ANISE, SWEET ANNIE,
THYME, TURMERIC. SO, REDUCTIONISTICALLY, ASSUMING NO SYNERGIES OR ANTAGONISMS OR ADDITIVITIES, A
RIDICULOUS ASSUMPTION, ONE WOULD ASSUME THAT ANY GOODS (AND EVILS) ACCRUING TO THE CINEOLE IN
MYRTLE SHOULD APPLY EVEN MORE SO TO THOSE LISTED ABOVE, WHICH, THEORETICALLY AT LEAST, MAY ATTAIN
HIGHER LEVELS OF CINEOLE—SOME (E.G., CARDAMOM) ATTAINING LEVELS MORE THAN TWENTYFOLD HIGHER.
SYMPTOMS OF THIS ALLEGED CINEOLE INTOXICATION MAY INCLUDE CIRCULATORY DISORDERS, COLLAPSE, LOWERED
BLOOD PRESSURE, AND RESPIRATORY FAILURE. SO, RATHER THAN PLACING ALL THIS UNDER THE OBSCURE SPICE,
MYRTLE, WHY NOT PUT IT UNDER THE GRAS CARDAMOM, WHICH CAN CONTAIN UP TO 5.6% CINEOLE (THEORETICAL
MAX IN MY DATABASE), COMPARED TO A MERE 0.225% IN MYRTLE?
INDICATIONS (CARDAMON) — AGUE (F; DAD); ALCOHOLISM (F; DAD); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ANOREXIA
(2; PHR; PH2); ASTHMA (F; APA; KAP; SKJ); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BILIOUSNESS (F; KAP); BLEEDING (F;
DAD); BRONCHOSIS (2; FNF; KAP; PHR; PH2; SKJ); CACOETHES (F; JLH); CANCER (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, DIAPHRAGM (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH; KAB); CATARRH (F; DAD); CHOLECYSTOSIS (2; PHR; PH2); CHOLERA (F; DEP); COLD
(2; FNF; PHR; PH2); COLIC, LIVER (1; APA); CONGESTION (1; FNF); CONSTIPATION (1; FNF); COUGH (F;
PH2); CRAMP (1; APA); CYSTOSIS (F; DEP; KAB; KAP); DEBILITY (F; DAD); DERMATOSIS (F; KAB);
DIAPHRAGMOSIS (F; JLH); DIARRHEA (F; PH2); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAD); DYSPEPSIA (2; APA; DAD;
KAP; KOM; PH2); DYSURIA (F; APA; KAB); EARACHE (F; KAB); ENTEROSIS (F; JLH); ENURESIS (F; BOW;
DAD); FATIGUE (1; APA); FEVER (2; FNF; PHR; PH2); FLU (1; FNF); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GAS (1; APA;
KAP; PH2; RIN); GASTROSIS (1; JLH; PH2); HALITOSIS (1; APA; DAD); HEADACHE (F; DEP); HEMORRHOID
(F; KAB; KAP); HEPATOSIS (2; FNF; JLH; PHR; PH2); HYPERACIDITY (F; DAD); IMPOTENCE (F; APA);
INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (2; FNF; PHR; PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; KAB); INTOXICATION (F;
DAD); INSOMNIA (1; FNF); LETHARGY (1; FNF); MALARIA (F; DAD); MORNING SICKNESS (F; PH2); MYCOSIS
(1; FNF); NAUSEA (F; DEP; PH2); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEPHROSIS (F; KAB); PAIN (1; DAD; FNF);
PHARYNGOSIS (2; KAB; PHR; PH2); PROCTOSIS (F; KAB); PULMONOSIS (F; DAD); ROEMHELD SYNDROME
(F; PH2); SCABIES (F; KAB); SNAKEBITE (F; KAB); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); SPERMATORRHEA (F; DAD);
STOMACHACHE (1; APA; PH2); STOMATOSIS (2; PHR; PH2); STRANGURY (F; KAP); TOOTHACHE (F; KAB);
TRICHOMONAS (1; FNF); TUBERCULOSIS (F; DAD; SKJ); URETHROSIS (F; PH2); UROGENITOSIS (F; DAD);
UTEROSIS (F; JLH); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; DEP; PH2).
CARDAMON FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: ASCARIDOLE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; MENTHONE; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; MENTHONE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROL; NEROLIDOL;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; SINAPIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; LINALOOL; MENTHONE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENYL-ACETATE; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CYANIDIN; GAMMA-TERPINENE; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL;
LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: BORNEOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVONE;
CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MENTHONE; NEROL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
CARDAMON FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID
• ANTIHERPETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENYL-ACETATE; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CYANIDIN; GAMMA-TERPINENE; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL;
LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENYL-ACETATE
• ANTIRADICULAR: CAFFEIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• CHOLAGOGUE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CHOLERETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• HEPATOTROPIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
OTHER USES (CARDAMON) — CALLED THE “QUEEN OF SPICES” IN INDIA (WHERE BLACK PEPPER IS KING).
WHOLE CARDAMOM PODS ARE TOSSED INTO CURRIES AND BIRYANIS. GROUND CARDAMOM SEASONS TANDOORI
CHICKEN AND ENHANCES SWEETS SUCH AS “GAJAR KA HALVA” (CARROT AND MILK PUDDING), RICE PUDDING,
AND “GULAB JAMUN” (FRIED BALLS OF THICK REDUCED MILK, IN ROSE-SCENTED SUGAR SYRUP). IN ETHIOPIA,
CARDAMOMS ARE IMPORTANT IN THE HOT PEPPER MIX, A CONDIMENT CALLED “MIT’MIT’A” (FAC). CARDAMOM IMPARTS THE DISTINCTIVE FLAVORS TO DANISH PASTRIES, SWEDISH COFFEE CAKES, NORWEGIAN CHRISTMAS CAKES, FINNISH PUULA, AND ICELANDIC PÖNNUKÖKUR. SCANDINAVIAN COOKS USE IT TO SEASON COOKIES,
WAFFLES, CRISPBREADS, AND MANY OTHER BAKED GOODS. CARDAMOM IS ALSO USED TO FLAVOR “GLÖGG,” THE
HOT SPICED SCANDINAVIAN WINE POPULAR AT CHRISTMAS. A HALF-TEASPOON CAN IMPROVE GINGERBREAD,
SPICE CAKES, AND CHOCOLATE CAKE, APPLE OR PEACH PIE, FRUIT SALADS, JAMS, AND CUSTARD OR ICE CREAM
(AAR). DECORTICATED CARDAMON SEEDS ARE USED FOR SEASONING SAUSAGES AND HAMBURGERS, PASTRIES
AND CONFECTIONS. SEEDS USED TO FLAVOR BITTERS, CAKES, CANDIES, COFFEE, CORDIALS, CURRIES, DRINKS,
GINGERBREADS, LIQUEURS, AND PICKLES (CFR, FAC). ARABS AND EAST INDIANS CHEW THE SEED AS A
CANDY. THE SEEDS IMPART A WARM, SLIGHTLY PUNGENT, HIGHLY AROMATIC TASTE AND ARE USED IN BREATH
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SWEETENERS. OCCASIONALLY, THE SEED ARE CHEWED WITH BETEL-LEAF (DEP). CARDAMOM IS IMPORTANT IN
SOME CURRIES. IN TRADITIONAL “MASSAMAN” (MUSLIMS IN S. THAILAND) CARDAMOM SEED, ROASTED IN
THEIR SHELL, ARE GARNISHED ONTO CURRIES. CARDAMON IS USED IN COFFEE (FROM A DASH TO 2 TSP OF PODS
AND SEEDS PER CUP OF COFFEE), ESPECIALLY BY ARABS, GIVING IT A DOUBLE CNS-STIMULANT WHAMMY.
AN EO, OBTAINED FROM GREEN CARDAMON PODS AND SEEDS BY STEAM DISTILLATION, SERVES FOR FLAVORING
CAKES, IN CONFECTIONERY, SAUSAGES, PICKLES, TABLE SAUCES, CURRY PREPARATIONS, AND IN CERTAIN BITTERS
AND LIQUEURS. AS WITH MANY GINGER RELATIVES, CARDAMOM LEAVES ARE USED TO WRAP FOODS OVER THE
FIRE OR STOVE. THE YOUNG SHOOTS, LIKE THOSE OF MANY GINGER RELATIVES, ARE EATEN RAW, ROASTED, OR
STEAMED. IF, AS RINZLER (1990) NOTES (FOR HIGH CINEOLE CONTENT), BAY LEAVES SEEM TO REPEL FLEAS,
MOTHS, AND ROACHES, CARDAMOM SHOULD DO IT BETTER. A FRUIT IN A CANISTER OF FLOUR JUST MIGHT KEEP
OUT THE BUGS, AND A FRUIT BY THE PIPES COMING UP FROM THE BASEMENT MIGHT KEEP THE COCKROACHES
UNDERNEATH. CARDAMOM IS ONE OF THE RICHEST SOURCES OF CINEOLE. BUT RINZLER WAS WAY AHEAD OF
ME. SHE DOESN’T RECOMMEND THEM IN YOUR FLOUR CANNISTER UNLESS YOU WISH YOUR FLOUR AND RESULTANT
BAKED GOODS TO SMELL OF CARDAMOM (DAD, FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CARDAMON) — MAY BE RAISED FROM SEED, WHICH REQUIRE 2–3 MONTHS TO GERMINATE.
SITES MUST BE SHELTERED FROM DIRECT SUN AND STRONG WINDS. CLEARINGS IN FOREST OFTEN PROVIDE SUCH
SITES. IT IS MORE USUALLY STARTED FROM SELECTED RHIZOMES OR BULBS 1.5 TO 2 YEARS OLD AND WITH AT LEAST
2 GROWING STEMS; MATURE PLANTS CAN BE DIVIDED AFTER FRUITING. FLOWERS ARE SAID TO BE SELF-STERILE, SO
IT IS NECESSARY TO PLANT A MIXTURE OF CLONES. IN INDIA, THE FRUITS ARE HARVESTED FROM AUGUST THROUGH
DECEMBER, AS THEY RIPEN; DIVIDING AND PLANTING IS DONE LATER. PLANTS ARE SET 3–4 M APART. MANUAL
LABOR IS GENERALLY USED TO KEEP WEEDS DOWN DURING THE FIRST 2 YEARS. PLANTS SHOULD BE PERIODICALLY
CLEANED OF DRIED LEAVES AND DAMAGED OR DECAYING STEMS. RAISED ALONE IN MONOCULTURE OR WITH
PEPPER AND/OR COFFEE. IF A SWAMPY SITE RUNS THROUGH A COFFEE PLANTATION, IT IS OFTEN PLANTED WITH
CARDAMON (DAD, DEP). PLANTS MATURE IN 2–3 YEARS, RIPENING MORE SLOWLY AT HIGHER ELEVATIONS.
MOST GROWERS HAVE THREE FIELDS OF PLANTS: PLANTS JUST SET, THOSE IN SECOND YEAR GROWTH, AND THOSE
FRUITING. FRUITING PLANTS ARE DUG, DIVIDED, AND REPLANTED. RIPE FRUITS MUST BE SEVERED CAREFULLY WITH
SCISSORS SO AS NOT TO INJURE THE FLOWERS AND UNRIPE FRUIT. FRUITS ARE PICKED GREEN (YELLOW ONES SPLIT
AND SHATTER = SHED THEIR SEEDS). YIELDS ALL YEAR ROUND IN THE HUMID TROPICS, BUT CHIEFLY DURING DRY
PERIOD. CROP IS GATHERED EVERY 2–3 WEEKS. IN INDIA AND SRI LANKA, FRUIT IS PREPARED FOR MARKET BY:
(1) SULFUR BLEACHING — SULFUR FUMIGATION, ALTERNATED WITH SOAKING AND DRYING, CARRIED OUT IN FOUR
STAGES WITH A FINAL SUN DRYING; WHOLE PROCESS TAKES FROM 10–12 DAYS TO COMPLETE, AND BLEACHED
CARDAMONS ARE CREAMY-WHITE; (2) GREEN CURING — CARDAMONS ARE DRIED ON TRAYS IN A HEATED CHAMBER
OR OVER AN OPEN CHARCOAL FIRE IN A CLOSED CHAMBER. THESE CARDAMONS ARE GREEN. STALKS AND CALYXES
ARE REMOVED FROM DRIED CARDAMONS BY CUTTING OR GRATING, THEN SORTED AND GRADED ACCORDING TO SIZE.
YIELDS OF 110–330 KG/HA OF DRIED CARDAMONS HAVE BEEN OBTAINED, BUT YIELDS OF 40–80 KG/HA SEEM
TO REPRESENT MORE CUSTOMARY YIELDS. SCIENTISTS HAVE INCREASED YIELDS TO 625 KG/HA BY CLONAL PROPAGATION (DAD).
CHEMICALS (CARDAMON) — ALL THINGS IN MODERATION, HEALTH FOOD OR POISON. AND DON’T BE ALARMED
BY THE LD50 (2480 MG/KG ORALLY IN RATS), WHICH INDICATES THAT CINEOLE IS LESS THAN 1/10TH AS TOXIC
ACUTELY AS CAFFEINE (192 MG/KG ORALLY IN RAT). CARDAMOM IS ALSO MY RICHEST SOURCE OF P-CYMENE,
AND SURELY THE CYMENE ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO THE MEDICINAL RATIONALE OF CARDAMOM.
1,8-CINEOLE — ACARICIDE; ALLELOPATHIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC50 = 41 ΜG/ML;
ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIBACTERIAL 50 PPM; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTICATARRH; ANTICHOLINESTERASE;
ANTIFATIGUE; ANTIHALITOSIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILARYNGITIC; ANTIPHARYNGITIC; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTIRHINITIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISINUSITIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC 50 PPM; ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER; CANDIDICIDE; CARCINOGENIC; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; CONVULSANT; COUNTERIRRITANT; DECONGESTANT; DEGRANULANT 0.3 ΜL/ML; DENTIFRICE; EDEMAGENIC; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE; GASTROPROTECTIVE;
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
GRAM(+)-ICIDE; GRAM(–)-ICIDE; HEPATOTONIC; HERBICIDE IC50 = 78 ΜM; HYPOTENSIVE; INSECTIFUGE;
IRRITANT; MYORELAXANT; NEMATICIDE; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 87 NL/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 87 NL/ML;
P450-INDUCER; NEUROTOXIC; PERFUME; RUBEFACIENT; SECRETAGOGUE; SEDATIVE; SPASMOGENIC; SURFACTANT; TESTOSTERONE-HYDROXYLASE-INDUCER; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 1000 ΜG/ML; VERMIFUGE; LD50
= 2480 ORL RAT; LD50 = 3480 MG/KG; LD50 = >5000 DER RBT.
PALMITIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC; HEMOLYTIC; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC;
LUBRICANT; NEMATICIDE; SOAP; LD50 = 57 IVN MUS.
P-CYMENE — ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC40 = 1.2 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIFLU; ANTIRHEUMATALGIC; ANTIVIRAL; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE IC50 = 50 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; LAXATIVE; SEDATIVE;
TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 50 ΜG/ML; LD50 = 4750 MG/KG ORL RAT.
STEARIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; COSMETIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; LUBRICANT; PROPECIC;
SUPPOSITORY; LD50 = 22 IVN RAT.
TERPINEN-4-OL — ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC21–24 = 1.2 MM; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER; BACTERISTAT; DIURETIC 0.1
ML/RAT; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE IC50 = 200 MM, IC50 = 22 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE
MLC = 1 MG/ML; RENOIRRITANT; SPERMICIDE ED100 = 0.015; VULNERARY; LD50 = 0.78 ML/KG IMS
MUS; LD50 = 0.25 ML/KG IPR MUS; LD50 = 1.85 ML/KG ORL MUS; LD50 = 0.75 ML/KG SCU MUS.
ERYNGIUM FOETIDUM L. (APIACEAE)
CILANTRO, CULANTRO, FALSE CORIANDER, SHADOW BENI, STINKWEED
MEDICINAL USES (CULANTRO) — CONSIDERED ANTIMALARIAL, ANTISPASMODIC, CARMINATIVE, AND PECTORAL
(DAW). ROOTS CONTAIN SAPONIN AND HAVE AN OFFENSIVE ODOR. THEY ARE USED AS A STOMACHIC. A
DECOCTION OF ROOT IS VALUED IN VENEZUELA AS A STIMULANT, ANTIPYRETIC, A POWERFUL ABORTIVE, AND SEDATIVE.
IN CUBA, IT IS A VALUABLE EMMENAGOGUE. IT IS USED THROUGHOUT TROPICAL AMERICA AS A REMEDY FOR
SEIZURES AND HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE. ITS INFUSION WITH SALT IS TAKEN FOR COLIC. LEAF INFUSION USED FOR
STOMACHACHES. THE SEEDS AND ROOTS ARE USED FOR EARACHE (MUSTALISH AND BAXTER, 2001). AROUND OUR
CAMPS IN PERU, “SACHA CULANTRO” IS BOILED FOR CRAMPS AND STOMACHACHE. AROUND PUCALLPA, PERU,
CULANTRO WITH MEAT BROTH IS TAKEN FOR BRONCHITIS AND FEVER. CHAMIS INDIANS BRAISE THE DRIED FRUITS
AND HAVE THE CHILDREN INHALE SMOKE TO TREAT DIARRHEA. GREEN FRUITS ARE CRUSHED AND MIXED WITH FOOD
TO TREAT INSOMNIA. CRÉOLES DRINK THE DECOCTION FOR COLDS AND FLU, AND RUB CRUSHED LEAVES OVER THE
BODY TO REDUCE HIGH FEVER.
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INDICATIONS (CULANTRO) —ANEMIA (F; MPG); ANOREXIA (F; JFM); ARTHROSIS (F; DAV; MPG); ASTHMA
(F; IED; MPG); BILIOUSNESS (F; JFM); BRONCHOSIS (F; DAV); CARDIOPATHY (F; IED; MPG); CATARRH
(F; IED); CHILL (F; BOW); COLD (F; DAV; JFM); COLIC (F; DAV); CONSTIPATION (F; JFM); CONVULSION
(F; JFM); COUGH (F; DAV; JFM); DEBILITY (F; MPG); DIABETES (1; JFM; MPG; JAC7:405); DIARRHEA
(F; DAV); DYSPEPSIA (1; BOW; DAV); EARACHE (F; MPG; TRA); EDEMA (1; PR13:75); EPILEPSY (F;
BOW); FEVER (1; DAV; JFM; TRA); FITS (F; BOW; JFM); FLU (F; DAV; JFM); GAS (1; DAV; JFM);
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (F; DAV; IED; MPG); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (F; MPG); INFLAMMATION (1; PR13:75);
INSOMNIA (F; DAV); MALARIA (F; DAV); NAUSEA (F; DAV; TRA); OBESITY (F; MPG); PARASITE (F; IED);
PNEUMONIA (F; DAV); RHEUMATISM (F; DAV; JFM); SNAKEBITE (F; HHB; JFM); STOMACHACHE (F;
DAV; MPG); SWELLING (1; PR13:75); SYNCOPE (F; JFM); TUMOR (F; DAV; JLH); WATER RETENTION
(F; HHB); WORM (F; IED; JFM); YELLOW FEVER (F; JFM).
CULANTRO FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE
• SEDATIVE: ALPHA-PINENE; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
OTHER USES (CULANTRO) — HOW WELL I REMEMBER THIS AS A VITAL CONSTITUENT OF THE CHICKEN CALDOS,
CALLED “SANCOCHO” IN PANAMA. ELSEWHERE, IT’S ALMOST AS MUCH A MEDICINE AS A SPICE. THE SPANISH
NAME “RECAO DE MONTE” INDICATES THAT IT IS A WILD SPICE. IT IS A WEED. THE LEAVES CONSTITUTE A POWERFUL
SPICE, A LOVE-IT OR HATE-IT SPICE. LEAVES ARE USED IN TROPICAL AMERICA AND ELSEWHERE, AS CONDIMENT
IN STEWS, PASTRIES, SOUPS, AND MEAT DISHES, TO IMPART AN AGREEABLE FLAVOR (THOUGH SOME SAY IT SMELLS
LIKE BEDBUGS). ONE SPICE MIXTURE, CALLED “SOFRITO”(CHILES, CILANTRO, AND CULANTRO), IS SOLD IN THE WEST
INDIAN MARKETS OF NEW YORK AND OTHER LARGE CITIES (FAC). JAVANESE ADD THE TENDEREST LEAVES TO RICE
AS A LABLAB. ROOTS ARE ALSO USED, ALMOST AS SPICE VEGETABLES, IN MEAT DISHES AND SOUPS. THE LEAVES
OF CULANTRO (ERYNGIUM) RETAIN THEIR AROMA AND FLAVOR BETTER THAN LEAVES OF CILANTRO (CORIANDRUM)
ON DRYING. IT CONTAINS 0.02–0.04% OF A VOLATILE OIL (DAV, FAC, TAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CULANTRO) — OCHSE (1931) SAYS THE PLANT MULTIPLIES ONLY BY ITS SEED, PRODUCED IN
GREAT NUMBERS. SEED LOSE THEIR VIABILITY QUICKLY AND SO MUST BE SOWN AS SOON AS THEY ARE RIPE. IT
IS EASILY GROWN IN MOIST U.S. GARDEN SOILS IF STARTED INDOORS AND OUTPLANTED AFTER THE LAST FROST.
MINIMUM TEMP. = 15–18°C (59–64ΟF) (BOWN, 2001). AFTER SPRING-PLANTED CORIANDRUM HAS QUIT
PRODUCING LEAVES DUE TO THE HEAT, ERYNGIUM CONTINUES TO PRODUCE, REWARDING THE GARDENER’S EFFORTS
(TAD). LEAVES ARE BEST PICKED BEFORE FLOWERING BUT MAY BE USED FRESH OR DRIED. TWO-YEAR-OLD ROOTS
ARE ALSO UTILIZED (BOWN, 2001). SLUGS AND MEALY BUGS TEND TO LIKE CULANTRO. STORAGE AT 50ΟF (10ΟC)
CAN EXTEND SHELF LIFE OF THE LEAVES (AMBIENT SHELF LIFE 4 DAYS) UP TO 2 WEEKS. BLANCHING AT 205ΟF
(96ΟC) BEFORE DRYING PRESERVES THE GREEN COLOR (TAD).
CHEMISTRY (CULANTRO) — AS SO OFTEN HAPPENS, THE PHYTOCHEMICALS DON’T OCCUR IN ISOLATION; E.G.,
THE PHYTOSTEROLS IN A SINGLE EXTRACT ARE MANY AND POSSIBLY SYNERGISTIC: ALPHA-CHOLESTEROL, BRASSICASTEROL, CAMPESTEROL, STIGMASTEROL (AS THE MAIN COMPONENT, 95%), CLEROSTEROL, BETA-SITOSTEROL, DELTA 5-
AVENASTEROL, DELTA (5)24-STIGMASTADIENOL, AND DELTA 7-AVENASTEROL (GARCIA ET AL., 1999). HERE ARE A
FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CULANTRO. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS
AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD)
AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BETA-SITOSTEROL — ADI = 9–30 G/DAY/MAN; ANDROGENIC; ANORECTIC; ANTIADENOMIC; ANTIANDROGENIC;
ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIEDEMIC IC54 = 320 MG/KG ORL; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFER-
E
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TILITY; ANTIGONADOTROPIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC; ANTILYMPHOMIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC 250
ΜG/ML; ANTIOPHIDIC 2.3 MG MUS; ANTIPROGESTATIONAL; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN 30 MG/DAY/12 WK; ANTIPROSTATADENOMIC; ANTIPROSTATITIC 10–20 MG/3×/DAY/ORL MAN; ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR (CERVIX);
ANTITUMOR (LUNG); ANTIVIRAL; ARTEMICIDE LC50 = 110 PPM; CANDIDICIDE; ESTROGENIC; GONADOTROPIC;
HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC 2–6 G/MAN/DAY/ORL; HYPOGLYCEMIC; HYPOLIPIDEMIC 2–6
G/DAY; HYPOLIPOPROTEINAEMIC; SPERMICIDE; UBIQUICT; ULCEROGENIC 500 MG/KG IPR RAT; LD50 = 3000
MG/KG IPR MUS; LDLO = >10,000 INJ RAT.
DELTA-5-AVENASTEROL — ANTIOXIDANT.
DELTA-7-AVENASTEROL — ANTIOXIDANT.
STIGMASTEROL — ANESTHETIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOPHIDIC 2.3 MG/IPR
MUS; ANTIVIRAL; ARTEMICIDE LC50 = 110 PPM; ESTROGENIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; OVULANT; SEDATIVE.
F
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
F
FERULA ASSA-FOETIDA L. (APIACEAE)
ASAFETIDA
MEDICINAL USES (ASAFETIDA) — IF YOU THINK MEDICINES STINK AND SPICES SMELL GOOD, YOU MAY REGARD
ASAFETIDA AS MORE MEDICINE THAN FOOD. LIKE THOSE UNRELATED ALLIUMS, THIS IS LOADED WITH SULFUREOUS
MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS, SOME OF WHICH ARE CALLED MERCAPTANS. SOME SUPERSTITIOUS TYPES HANG ASAFETIDA
(AS WAS DONE WITH GARLIC) AROUND THE NECK TO WARD OFF COLDS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES (RIN). REPORTED
TO BE ANALGESIC, ANTISPASMODIC, APERIENT, APHRODISIAC, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXPECTORANT, LAXATIVE, NERVINE, SEDATIVE, STIMULANT, AND VERMIFUGE. ASAFETIDA SEEMS TO HAVE HYPOTENSIVE ACTIVITY
AND ANTIAGGREGANT ACTIVITY, SLOWING BLOOD CLOTTING (LIKE THE SIMILAR SMELLING GARLIC). “HERBAL HIGHS”
RECOMMENDS 1/2 TEASPOON IN WARM WATER AS A TRANQUILIZER. MALAYS TAKE ASAFETIDA FOR ABDOMINAL TROUBLE,
BROKEN BONES, AND RHEUMATISM. JAVANESE USE IT FOR STOMACHACHE AND WORMS. ASAFETIDA IS USED AS AN
ENEMA FOR INTESTINAL FLATULENCE. HOMEOPATHICALLY USED FOR GAS, OSTEOSIS, AND STOMACH CRAMPS (CRC).
SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN THE OIL MAY PROTECT AGAINST FAT-INDUCED HYPERLIPIDEMIA. TWO DOUBLE-BLIND
STUDIES REPORT ASAFETIDA USEFUL FOR IBS (JUST BELOW 5% SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL IN ONE, NEAR 1% IN THE OTHER)
(CAN). THAT MIGHT SEEM ODD WHEN ONE CONSIDERS THAT DESAI AND KALRO (1985) DEMONSTRATED UNDER
THEIR EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS THAT POWDERED BLACK PEPPER DOES NOT DAMAGE THE GASTRIC MUCOSA, BUT
THAT FERULA DOES, BASED ON THE RATE OF EXFOLIATION OF HUMAN GASTRIC MUCOSA SURFACE EPITHELIAL CELLS.
SALEEM ET AL. (2001) SHOW THAT ASAFETIDA INHIBITS EARLY EVENTS OF CARCINOGENESIS, BUT THEY MAY HAVE
BEEN STUDYING A CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES. THEY REPORT ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTICARCINOGENIC POTENTIAL OF
ASAFOETIDA (FERULA NARTHEX TO THEM) IN MICE. PRETREATMENT OF ANIMALS WITH ASAFOETIDA CAN PROTECT AGAINST
FREE RADICAL MEDIATED CARCINOGENESIS. UNNIKRISHNAN AND KUTTAN (1990) CLAIM THAT ORAL EXTRACTS OF BLACK
PEPPER, ASAFETIDA, PIPPALI, AND GARLIC COULD INCREASE THE LIFE SPAN IN MICE BY 64.7%, 52.9%, 47%, AND
41.1%, RESPECTIVELY. SUCH RESULTS SUGGEST THE USE OF SPICES AS ANTICANCER AGENTS AND ANTITUMOR PROMOTERS.
ACCORDING TO SAMBAIAH AND SRINIVASAN (1989), ASAFETIDA STIMULATED LIVER MICROSOMAL CYTOCHROME P450 DEPENDENT ARYL HYDROXYLASE. ASAFETIDA INCREASED GLUTATHIONE-S-TRANSFERASE ACTIVITY
>78% IN ESOPHAGUS, LIVER, AND STOMACH, ENOUGH TO BE CONSIDERED CHEMOPREVENTIVE (JAC7:405).
ARUNA AND SIVARAMAKRISHNAN (1990) AND PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) SUGGEST THAT ASAFETIDA
DECREASED LEVELS OF PHOSPHATASE AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES.
THE GUM MAY INDUCE CONTACT DERMATITIS. GENERALLY NOT REGARDED AS TOXIC. INGESTION OF 15 G
PRODUCED NO UNTOWARD EFFECTS, BUT RELATED FERULA SUMBUL HAS PRODUCED NARCOSIS AT 15 G. APPROVED
BY FDA FOR USE IN FOOD (§182.20, CRC).
INDICATIONS (ASAFETIDA) — AMENORRHEA (F; CRC); ANGINA (F; KAB); ARTHROSIS (1; BOW); ASCITES (F;
KAB); ASTHMA (1; APA; CRC; FNF; WOI); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BITE (F; KAB); BRONCHOSIS (1; APA;
CAN; WOI); CALLUS (F; JLH); CANCER (1; APA; FNF; PH2); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; APA); CANCER, COLON
(F; KAB); CANCER, GUM (F; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; JLH); CARDIOPATHY (F; KAB); CARIES (F; KAB); CHOLERA
(F; CRC; SKJ; WOI); COLIC (F; APA; CAN; CRC); COLD (F; TAD); COLITIS (F; APA; PHR; PH2);
CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; KAB); CONSTIPATION (F; PH2); CONVULSION (F; BOW; CRC); CORN (F; JLH); COUGH
(F; BOW; PNC); CRAMP (1; CAN; CRC; FNF; SKJ); CROUP (F; CRC); DEAFNESS (F; KAB); DERMATOSIS
(F; KAB); DIARRHEA (F; PH2); DYSENTERY (F; BOW); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; CAN; FNF; PH2); DYSPNEA
F
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(F; KAB); ENTEROSIS (F; APA; CRC; PH2); EPILEPSY (F; APA; CRC; PH2; WOI); FELON (F; JLH); FRACTURE
(F; CRC); FRIGIDITY (F; APA); FUNGUS (F; APA); GAS (1; APA; CAN; CRC; HHB; PNC; WOI); GASTROSIS
(F; PHR; PH2); GINGIVOSIS (F; JLH); HEMIPLEGIA (F; CRC); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH; PH2); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (F; DAA); HYPERLIPIDEMIA (F; CAN); HYPOACIDITY (F; PH2); HYPOGLYCEMIA (F; APA); HYSTERIA
(F; APA; CAN; WOI); IBS (2; CAN); IMPOTENCE (F; APA); INDIGESTION (1; APA; CAN); INDURATION (F;
JLH); INFECTION (F; PHR; PH2); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; KAB); INSANITY (F; CRC); INSOMNIA (F; PHR);
JAUNDICE (F; KAB); LARYNGISMUS (F; CAN); MUCOSOSIS (1; APA; CAN); MYCOSIS (F; KAB); NERVOUSNESS
(1; FNF); NEURASTHENIA (F; CRC; DAA); NEUROSIS (1; APA); OBESITY (1; CRC; FNF); OPHTHALMIA (F;
KAB); OSTEOSIS (F; CRC); PAIN (1; FNF); PARALYSIS (F; KAB); PARASITE (F; PH2); PERTUSSIS (F; CAN;
CRC; PH2; WOI); PNEUMONIA (F; KAB; SKJ); POLYP (F; CRC); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC; KAB); RINDERPEST
(F; CRC); RINGWORM (F; KAB); SARCOMA (F; CRC); SNAKEBITE (F; KAB); SORE THROAT (F; KAB); SPASM
(F; CRC); SPLENOSIS (F; CRC; PH2); STOMACHACHE (1; APA; CRC); THROMBOSIS (1; CAN; FNF; PNC);
TUMOR (1; APA; FNF); WART (F; JLH); WHITLOW (F; JLH); WORM (F; CRC).
ASAFETIDA FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; LUTEOLIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; ISOPIMPINELLIN;
LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: FERULIC-ACID; GLUCURONIC-ACID
• ANTIHYALURONIDASE: LUTEOLIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE; FERULIC-ACID; ISOPIMPINELLIN;
LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTILEUKEMIC: LUTEOLIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: DIALLYL-SULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIN
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIPROLIFERATIVE: DIALLYL-DISULFIDE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTITUMOR: DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; VANILLIN
• APOPTOTIC: LUTEOLIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN
• CYTOTOXIC: LUTEOLIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; FERULIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: FERULIC-ACID
• PTK-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: FERULIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN
• SUNSCREEN: FERULIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
ASAFETIDA FOR IBD:
• ANALGESIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AZULENE; DIALLYL-DISULFIDE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE;
FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE
F
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE; FERULIC-ACID; ISOPIMPINELLIN;
LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIOXIDANT: FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; VANILLIN
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AZULENE; BETA-PINENE; DIALLYL-SULFIDE; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISPASMODIC: AZULENE; FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VALERIC-ACID
• ANTIULCER: AZULENE
• DIURETIC: ISOPIMPINELLIN; LUTEOLIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: LUTEOLIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MYORELAXANT: LUTEOLIN; VALERIC-ACID
• SEDATIVE: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; VALERIC-ACID
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE; VALERIC-ACID
OTHER USES (ASAFETIDA) — WITH A TASTE STRONGER THAN ONION OR EVEN GARLIC, ASAFETIDA IS STILL USED
AS A SPICE IN THE MIDDLE EAST. IRANIANS RUB ASAFETIDA ON WARMED PLATES ON WHICH MEAT IS TO BE
SERVED. ONE-FOURTH TEASPOON POWDER MAY SUFFICE IN A DISH FOR FOUR. YOU COULD SUBSTITUTE 1 TBSP
FRESHLY GRATED WHITE ONION FOR 1
/4 TSP ASAFETIDA POWDER. YOUNG SHOOTS ARE CONSUMED AS A COOKED
GREEN VEGETABLE. THE HEADS, RATHER RESEMBLING CABBAGE, ARE EATEN RAW AS A DELICACY. ROOTS ARE ALSO
ROASTED AND EATEN IN THE SOUTHWEST (FAC). ALSO CALLED “HING” AND “PERUNKAYAM” IN ASIA (AAR).
IN KASHMIR, ASAFETIDA IS EATEN WITH VEGETABLES AND PULSES. IT IS ALL BUT ESSENTIAL IN KASHMIRI LAMB
WITH YOGURT SAUCE. IT IS SAID TO BE GOOD WITH LEGUMES, LIKE LENTILS AND BEANS, AND CRUCIFEROUS
VEGETABLES, LIKE CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER; ALSO GOOD WITH FISH AND SEAFOOD SOUPS. IT IS MIXED WITH
GROUND MEAT TO MAKE “KOFTA” (MEATBALLS) (AAR). INDIA LIKES CRISPY ASAFETIDA-FLAVORED “PAPADAMS,”
FLAT, FRIED CRACKERS MADE WITH LENTIL FLOUR. ASAFETIDA IS IMPORTANT IN “CHAAT MASALA.” HINDUS, PARTICULARLY IN KASHMIR, MAY AVOID GARLIC AND ONIONS (INFLAMING THE BASER PASSIONS), TURNING INSTEAD TO
ASAFETIDA. BUT SOME INDIAN RECIPES CALL FOR ALL THREE, ASAFETIDA, GARLIC, AND/OR ONIONS. INDIAN HOUSEWIVES ADD A LUMP TO STORED SPICES, HOPING TO DETER INSECTS. ROOTS ARE THE SOURCE OF A GUM RESIN
USED AS A FLAVORING IN BEAN AND LENTIL SOUP, CURRIED FISH, VEGETARIAN DISHES, SAUCES, DRINKS, PICKLES,
CAKES, ETC. IT IS A STANDARD INGREDIENT OF WORCESTERSHIRE SAUCE AND IS WIDELY EMPLOYED IN SPICE
BLENDS AND CONDIMENTS. ALSO POPULAR IN NATURAL FOODS CUISINE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR GARLIC (FAC).
ALCOHOLIC TINCTURES OF THE GUM-RESIN, OR THE OIL AND/OR FLUID EXTRACT, ARE REPORTEDLY USED, AT VERY
LOW LEVELS, IN BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, CANDIES, FROZEN DESERTS, GELATINS, MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS,
RELISHES, SAUCES, AND SPICES. ITS MAIN USE, HOWEVER, IS AS A FIXATIVE OR FRAGRANCE COMPONENT IN
PERFUMERY. THE VOLATILE OIL HAS NOT ATTAINED COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE, BECAUSE THE FLAVORING AND
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES UTILIZE INSTEAD THE TINCTURE OF ASAFETIDA (CRC). ASAFETIDA IS REPORTEDLY
USED IN VETERINARY PRACTICE TO REPEL CATS AND DOGS (CRC). RINZLER (1990) MENTIONS SOMETHING I
WANT TO TRY IN MY GREEN FARMACY GARDEN; SHE SUGGESTS A 2% ASAFETIDA SOLUTION FOR THE GARDEN TO
REPEL DEER AND RABBITS (1 OZ POWDERED ASAFETIDA WELL SHAKEN IN 1.5 QUARTS WATER) (MAYBE IT’LL REPEL
MY REPUGNANT GROUNDHOG, TOO) (AAR, CRC, FAC, RIN).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (ASAFETIDA) — ASAFETIDA GROWS IN ASIAN HIGH PLAINS REGION 2000–4000 FT ABOVE SEA
LEVEL, ARID AND BARE IN WINTER BUT COVERED WITH A THICK GROWTH OF FERULA FOETIDA AND OTHER FERULA
SPECIES IN SUMMER. HARDY FROM ZONE 7–9 (BOWN, 2001). ASAFETIDA IS GATHERED IN JUNE. THE GUM
IS CAUSED TO FORM BY BLEEDING THE ROOT OF THE PLANT. PREPARATORY TO CUTTING, SOIL IS SCRAPED AWAY
FROM AROUND THE ROOT TO ABOUT 6 IN. THE TOP IS SEVERED AT THE CROWN AND SEVERAL LACERATIONS MADE
AROUND THE HEAD OF THE ROOT. FRESH CUTS ARE MADE EVERY 3 OR 4 DAYS UNTIL SAP CEASES TO RUN (A WEEK
OR A MONTH), DEPENDING ON THE VIGOR AND SIZE. AFTER CUTTING, THE ROOT STUMP IS COVERED WITH A DOME
OF TWIGS, HERBS, STONES, OR OTHER TRASH TO PROTECT IT FROM THE SUN SO THAT IT WILL NOT WITHER. AS GUM
EXUDES IT HARDENS INTO TEARS, OR LUMPS. THIS IS COLLECTED AND SPREAD IN THE SUN TO HARDEN. QUANTITIES
RANGING FROM A FEW OUNCES TO SEVERAL POUNDS PER ROOT HAVE BEEN REPORTED (SOURCE: USDA FACT SHEET).
F
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CHEMISTRY (ASAFETIDA) — CONTAINS 40–64% RESINOUS MATERIAL COMPOSED OF FERULIC ACID, UMBELLIFERONE, ASARESINOTANNOLS, FARNESIFEROLS A, B, AND C, ETC., ABOUT 25% GUM COMPOSED OF GLUCOSE,
GALACTOSE, L-ARABINOSE, RHAMNOSE, AND GLUCURONIC ACID, AND VOLATILE OIL (3–17%) CONSISTING OF
DISULFIDES AS ITS MAJOR COMPONENTS, NOTABLY 2-BUTYL PROPENYL DISULFIDE (E- AND Z-ISOMERS), WITH
MONOTERPENES (ALPHA- AND BETA-PINENE, ETC.), FREE FERULIC ACID, VALERIC ACID, AND TRACES OF VANILLIN
(LAF). THE DISAGREEABLE ODOR OF THE OIL IS REPORTED TO BE DUE MAINLY TO THE DISULPHIDE C11H20S2.
ANALYSIS OF BAZAAR SAMPLES FROM MYSORE GAVE THE FOLLOWING VALUES: ASH, 4.4–44.3% AND ALCOHOL
SOLUBLE MATTER, 20.8–28.0%; SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM TEHERAN CONTAINED: ASH, 6.3–8.9% AND ALCOHOL
SOLUBLE MATTER, 28.3–40.9% (WOI).
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ASAFETIDA. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
FERULIC-ACID — ALLELOPATHIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIARRYTHMIC; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTICANCER; ANTICARCINOGEN; ANTIDYSMENORRHEIC; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC;
ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMITOTIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINEOPLASTIC (STOMACH); ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT 3000 ΜM, IC51 = 200 PPM, 1
/3 QUERCETIN; ANTISEROTONIN; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITHROMBIC;
ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (COLON); ANTITUMOR (FORESTOMACH); ANTITUMOR (LIVER); ANTITUMOR (SKIN);
ANTITUMOR-PROMOTER IC46 = 10 ΜM; ANTIVIRAL; ARTERIODILATOR; CANDIDICIDE; CARDIAC; CHOLAGOGUE;
CHOLERETIC; FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HERBICIDE; HYDROCHOLERETIC; HYPOLIPIDEMIC; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; INSECTIFUGE; METAL-CHELATOR; ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR; PHAGOCYTOTIC; PRESERVATIVE; PROSTAGLANDIGENIC; SUNSCREEN; UTEROSEDATIVE 30–100 MG/KG IVN RAT; LDLO = 1200 PAR MUS;
LD50 = 416 IVN MUS; LD50 = 837–895 IVN MUS.
FOETIDIN — HYPOGLYCEMIC
UMBELLIFERONE — ALLELOCHEMIC IC94 = 2 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER 5–25 ΜG/ML; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMITOTIC 5–25 ΜG/ML; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTISEPTIC;
ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC; CANDIDICIDE; CHOLERETIC; FUNGICIDE; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR;
PHOTOACTIVE; SUNSCREEN; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR.
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
G
GAULTHERIA PROCUMBENS L. (ERICACEAE)
BOX BERRY, CHECKER BERRY, CREEPING WINTERGREEN, MOUNTAIN TEA,
TEABERRY, WINTERGREEN TEABERRY
MEDICINAL USES (WINTERGREEN) — I FIND THE AROMA OF THE METHYL SALICYLATE, THE ACTIVE MAIN INGREDIENT
IN WINTERGREEN, VERY PLEASANT. I FREQUENTLY USE A BOSWELLIN CREAM WITH WINTERGREEN WHEN MY KNEE
ACTS UP. IN MAINE, WE MAKE WINTERGREEN TEA, DRINKING IT AND APPLYING IT TOPICALLY FOR CHRONIC OR
TEMPORARY PAIN. THERE’S MORE THAN ANALGESIC METHYL-SALICYLATE, THERE ARE AT LEAST THREE MORE ANALGESICS:
CAFFEIC-ACID, FERULIC-ACID, AND GENTISIC-ACID. AND IT COMPLEMENTS THE RED PEPPER WITH ITS ANALGESIC
CAPSAICIN, AND THE PEPPERMINT WITH ITS MENTHOL. YOU’LL FIND SEVERAL OTC PAIN RELIEVERS USING THESE
HERBS ALONE, OR ANY ONE OF THEIR CONSTITUENTS, OR IN VARIOUS COMBINATION. METHYL SALICYLATE HAS BEEN
EMPLOYED IN BATHS, LINIMENTS, AND OINTMENTS, FOR PAIN RELIEF, E.G., IN GOUT, LUMBAGO, RHEUMATISM, AND
SCIATICA. CHILDREN WHO CHEW THE ROOTS FOR SIX WEEKS EACH SPRING REPORTEDLY SUFFER LESS TOOTH DECAY.
WITH LEAVES SHAPED LIKE SOUTH AMERICA’S COCA LEAVES, THESE WINTERGREEN LEAVES AND/OR FRUITS WERE
USED BY NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS TO KEEP THEIR BREATH WHEN PORTAGING HEAVY LOADS. ALGONQUIN GUIDES
CHEWED THE LEAVES TO IMPROVE THEIR BREATHING (AND I EXPECT THEIR BREATH AS WELL) DURING HUNTING.
AMERINDIANS SMOKED AND CHEWED THE DRIED LEAVES. QUEBEC INDIANS ROLLED THE LEAVES AROUND ACHING
TEETH. THE EO IS USED AS AN ANALGESIC, ANTISEPTIC, AND COUNTERIRRITANT IN RHEUMATISM, LUMBAGO, AND
SCIATICA. LIKE SO MANY OTHER AROMATIC EOS, ITS OIL CAN BE FATAL IF INGESTED IN LARGE QUANTITIES. THE
WHOLE PLANT IS USED AS AN ANTISEPTIC, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, LACTAGOGUE, NERVINE, RUBEFACIENT, STIMULANT, ANTIRHEUMATIC, AND AS A FLAVORING IN MEDICINE. THE TEA IS USED AS A GARGLE FOR SORE
THROAT AND STOMATOSIS, AS A DOUCHE FOR LEUCORRHEA, AND AS A COLLYRIUM FOR CONJUNCTIVITIS. SMALL DOSES
STIMULATE THE STOMACH, LARGE DOSES CAUSE VOMITING. IT MAY BE USED FOR DIARRHEA, AND AS AN INFANT’S
CARMINATIVE. LEAVES ARE USED IN THE TREATMENT OF ASTHMA.
IN AN INTERESTING CASE OF SYNERGY, JIN ET AL. (1999) SHOW THAT ALOESIN AND ARBUTIN INHIBIT TYROSINASE
SYNERGISTICALLY, ACTING VIA DIFFERENT MECHANISM.
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AND DEATH FROM STOMACH INFLAMMATIONS HAVE RESULTED FROM FREQUENT AND LARGE DOSES OF THE OIL.
THE HIGHEST AVERAGE MAXIMUM USE LEVEL IS CA. 0.04% IN CANDY. NOT LISTED UNDER FDA §172.510,
182.10, OR 182.20. WINTERGREEN HAS LECTINIC, INCLUDING MITOGENIC PROPERTIES. SALICYLISM USUALLY
MARKED BY TINNITUS, NAUSEA, AND VOMITING AND MAY RESULT FROM EXCESSIVE DOSAGE OF SALICYLIC ACID
AND/OR ITS SALTS.
INDICATIONS (WINTERGREEN) — AMENORRHEA (F; CEB); ARTHROSIS (1; DEM; FNF; PHR; PH2); ASTHMA
(F; CEB; PHR; PH2); BACTERIA (1; FNF); CANCER (1; CEB; FNF; LEL); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CARIES
(1; CEB; CRC; FNF); CATARRH (F; CRC); COLD (1; DEM; FAD; FNF); COLIC (1; APA; MAD);
CONGESTION (F; MAD); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; CRC); COUGH (1; X1798722); CRAMP (1; FNF); CYSTOSIS
(1; FNF); DEBILITY (F; CEB); DERMATOSIS (F; CRC); DIABETES (1; CRC; FNF); DIAPHRAGMOSIS (1;
MAD; PHR); DIARRHEA (F; CEB; CRC); DROPSY (F; CRC); DYSENTERY (F; DEM); DYSMENORRHEA (1;
CRC; FNF; MAD; PHR); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; DEM); DYSPNEA (F; CEB; CRC); EDEMA (1; APA;
FNF); EPIDIDYMOSIS (1; CRC; MAD; PHR); FEVER (1; APA; CRC; FAD; MAD); FLU (1; DEM;
FNF); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GAS (1; APA); GASTROSIS (F; CRC; MAD); GINGIVOSIS (1; DEM; FNF);
GONORRHEA (F; CRC); GOUT (1; CRC; FNF; MAD); HEADACHE (1; APA; DEM; FAD; FNF); HEART
(F; MIC); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INFECTION (1; FNF; MAD); INFLAMMATION (1; APA; FNF);
ISCHIOSIS (F; MAD); LEUKORRHEA (F; CRC); LUMBAGO (1; CRC; DEM; FAD); MYOSIS (1; APA; FAD);
NEPHROSIS (F; DEM; FAD); NEURALGIA (1; FAD; PH2); OPHTHALMIA (F; CEB); ORCHOSIS (1; CRC;
MAD; PHR); OVARIOSIS (1; PHR); PAIN (1; APA; MAD); PERTUSSIS (F; MAD); PLEURISY (1; PHR);
PLEUROSIS (F; MAD); PLEURODYNIA (1; CRC; PHR); RHEUMATISM (1; APA; CRC; FAD; FNF); SCIATICA
(1; CRC; FAD; PH2); SCROFULA (F; CRC); SNIFFLE (F; MAD); SORE THROAT (1; APA; CRC); SPRAIN
(1; BOW; FAD); STOMACHACHE (1; DEM; FAD); STOMATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF); STREPTOCOCCUS (1;
FNF); STROKE (F; MIC); SWELLING (1; X1875280); TAPEWORM (F; DEM); TOOTHACHE (1; CRC; FNF);
TYPHUS (F; MAD); UTEROSIS (F; MAD); UTI (1; FNF); VD (F; CRC; DEM); WATER RETENTION (1;
APA; CEB; FNF); WORM (F; DEM); YEAST (1; FNF).
WINTERGREEN FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; METHYL-SALICYLATE;
URSOLIC-ACID
• ANTIALLERGIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ARBUTIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; P-COUMARICACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: GALLIC-ACID
• ANTIFLU: CAFFEIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LUPEOL
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; URSOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GAULTHERIN; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; URSOLIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LUPEOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXYBENZOIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID; URSOLIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIPYRETIC: METHYL-SALICYLATE
• ANTISEPTIC: ARBUTIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; ERICOLIN; GALLIC-ACID; METHYL-SALICYLATE; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTITUSSIVE: ARBUTIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; TANNIC-ACID;
URSOLIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: URSOLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALLIC-ACID; URSOLIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: FERULIC-ACID
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WINTERGREEN FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; METHYL-SALICYLATE;
URSOLIC-ACID
• ANTIARTHRITIC: URSOLIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: ALPHA-AMYRIN; BETA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; LUPEOL; URSOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GAULTHERIN; GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; URSOLIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIRHEUMATIC: GENTISIC-ACID; LUPEOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE
• ANTISPASMODIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: URSOLIC-ACID
• COUNTERIRRITANT: METHYL-SALICYLATE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALLIC-ACID; URSOLIC-ACID
• ELASTASE-INHIBITOR: URSOLIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; URSOLIC-ACID
• MYORELAXANT: GALLIC-ACID
OTHER USES (WINTERGREEN) — OIL OF WINTERGREEN IS USED AS A FLAVORING AGENT IN BEERS, BEVERAGES,
CANDIES, CHEWING GUMS (E.G., THE NOW RARE TEABERRY GUM), SOFT DRINKS, AND DENTAL PREPARATIONS,
OFTEN COMBINED WITH MENTHOL AND EUCALYPTUS. ONE ROOT BEER REMEDY CALLED FOR 4 DRACHMS WINTERGREEN OIL, 2 SASSAFRAS OIL, 1 CLOVE OIL, AND CA. 120 G ALCOHOL. THE RED TO PINKISH SPICY FRUITS ARE
EATEN RAW AND USED IN JAMS, JELLIES, PIES, AND SYRUP. AMERINDIANS ATE THE BERRIES, EVEN IN THE SNOW.
LEAVES USED TO MAKE AN HERBAL TEA (MOUNTAIN TEA), AS A CONDIMENT, AND A NIBBLE. STRONGER TEAS,
CANDIES, AND WINES, ARE MADE FROM THE FERMENTED BRIGHT-RED LEAVES. AMERINDIANS SMOKED AND
CHEWED THE DRIED LEAVES. I HAVE STEEPED THE LEAVES AND BERRIES IN VODKA FOR MY “TEABERRY TRIP,”
EVEN IN MIDWINTER. IN SUMMER, I LIKE TO ADD WILD GINGER AND BEEBALM. OLD TIMERS STEEPED THE LEAVES
IN BRANDY AS A TONIC LIQUEUR. WEED (1985) RECOMMENDS THE VINEGAR TINCTURE OF WINTERGREEN (CRC,
FAC, LIL).
ACCORDING TO THE ANNALS ON ENDOCRINOLOGY, AND DOMINIC AND PANDEY (1979), FEMALE MICE DO
NOT RETURN TO ESTRUS FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO MALES PERFUMED WITH OIL OF WINTERGREEN (OR A COMMERCIAL
PERFUME). MALE URINE MAY BE THE SOURCE OF THE PRIMER PHEROMONE INVOLVED IN ESTRUS INDUCTION,
INEFFECTIVE BECAUSE OF THE MASKING BY WINTERGREEN OIL. UNABLE TO PERCEIVE THE MALE PHEROMONE,
DUE TO WINTERGREEN OIL, FEMALES REMAIN IN ANESTRUS FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO PERFUMED MALES.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (WINTERGREEN) — IT’S HARD TRANSPLANTING THIS COMMON HERB FROM THE EDGES OF THE PEAT
BOGS AND FROM ACID STERILE SOILS, PROBABLY BECAUSE OF AN OBLIGATE MYCORRHIZA. BOWN (2001) SUGGEST
PROPAGATION BY SEED, AUTUMN SOWN ON THE SOIL SURFACE, OR BY SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS IN SUMMER, OR BY
SEPARATING ROOTED SUCKERS IN SPRING. HARDY ZONES 3–7.
CHEMISTRY (WINTERGREEN) — THE ACTIVE INGREDIENT IS METHYL SALICYLATE, NOW MADE SYNTHETICALLY. COMMERCIAL OIL OF WINTERGREEN, OR OIL OF CHECKERBERRY, IS OBTAINED FROM DISTILLATION OF
THE TWIGS OF BLACK BIRCH. THE VOLATILE OIL CONTAINS 98–99% METHYL SALICYLATE. ARBUTIN, ERICOLIN,
GALLIC ACID, GAULTHERINE, GAULTHERILENE, GAULTHERIC ACID, MUCILAGE, TANNIN, WAX, AN ESTER, TRIACONTANE, AND A SECONDARY ALCOHOL ARE ALSO REPORTED. OTHER ACIDS REPORTED INCLUDE O-PYROCATECHUSIC-, GENTISINIC-, SALICYLIC-, P-HYDROXYBENZOIC-, PROTOCATECHUIC-, VANILLIC-, SYRINGIC-, P-COUMARIC-, CAFFEIC-, AND FERULIC-ACIDS. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN
WINTERGREEN. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALOESIN — LAXATIVE; SUNSCREEN
ARBUTIN — ALLELOCHEMIC IC51 = 1.1 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 4000–8000 PPM; ANTIEDEMIC 50
MG/KG; ANTIMELANOGENIC IC50 = 40 ΜM; ANTISEPTIC 60–200 MG/MAN; ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC MIC =
4000–8000 PPM; ANTITUSSIVE; ARTEMICIDE; CANDIDICIDE; DIURETIC 60–200 MG/MAN; INSULIN-SPARER;
MYCOPLASMISTAT; TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 40 ΜM; URINARY-ANTISEPTIC.
GAULTHERIN — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; DIURETIC.
METHYL-SALICYLATE — ADI = 500 ΜG/MG; ANALGESIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIPYRETIC;
ANTIRADICULAR; ANTIRHEUMATALGIC; ANTISEPTIC; CARMINATIVE; COUNTERIRRITANT; DENTIFRICE; INSECTIFUGE;
LDLO = 170 ORL HMN; LD50 = 887 ORL RAT; LD50 = 1110 ORL MUS; LD50 = 4 ML ORL CHD; LD50 =
30 ML ORL MAN.
GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA L. (FABACEAE)
LICORICE
MEDICINAL USES (LICORICE) — IT IS CONSIDERED ALEXERITIC, ALTERATIVE, ANTIPYRETIC, DEMULCENT, DEODORANT (LF), DEPURATIVE, DIURETIC, EMOLLIENT, EXPECTORANT, ESTROGENIC, LAXATIVE, PECTORAL, AND SUDORIFIC.
WITH A LONG HISTORY OF USE FOR INDIGESTION AND INFLAMED STOMACH, LICORICE PROVIDES TWO DERIVATIVES
THAT REDUCE OR CURE ULCERS. WHEN I WAS BEING HEAVILY MEDICATED FOR SLIPPED DISK, ESPECIALLY WITH
ULCEROGENIC NSAIDS, I TOOK A LOT OF LICORICE TO PREVENT THE ULCER THE NSAIDS MIGHT CAUSE. ITS
MUCILAGE MAKES A NATURAL DEMULCENT, NOT ONLY FOR THE STOMACH BUT FOR THE THROAT AND OTHER MUCOUS
MEMBRANES. MODERN STUDIES HINT THAT SWEETS TRIGGER ENDORPHIN PRODUCTION, AND THAT MAY BE WHY
WE HAVE SO MANY SWEET OTC COUGH DROPS. THE LICORICE TREATMENTS HELP TOO. ONE COULD BOIL FRAYED
ROOTS IN WATER TO RELIEVE A COUGH OR SORE THROAT. NOT TOO MUCH THOUGH! INGESTION OF 280 MG/KG
LICORICE PER DAY FOR FOUR WEEKS TRIGGERED CARDIAC PROBLEMS, GI PROBLEMS, AND HYPERTENSION (RIN).
IN INDIA, IT IS CHEWED WITH BETEL. CHINESE USE THE FRAYED ROOTS AS A PREFERRED “TOOTHBRUSH,” WHICH
CLEANS PLAQUE BETTER WITH A SCOURING MOTION THAN MOST TYPES OF TOOTHBRUSH, WHILE NOT IRRITATING THE
GUMS LIKE THE BRUSHING ACTION CURRENTLY USED HERE.
HEARTWISE, FOUR ISOFLAVANS AND TWO CHALCONES PROVED TO BE VERY POTENT ANTIOXIDANTS AGAINST LDL
OXIDATION, POSSIBLY PREVENTING FORMATION OF ATHEROSCLEROTIC LESIONS (GLABRADIN AND ISOFLAVAN WERE BOTH
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MOST ABUNDANT AND ACTIVE), ACCORDING TO ISRAEL RESEARCHERS (TAD). UK RESEARCHERS CONCLUDE, AS DO I,
THAT THE ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF THE WHOLE ROOT IS MORE A SYNERGISTIC RESULT OF THE WHOLE MIX RATHER
THAN ISOLATED FLAVONOID. MAY I PREDICT THAT ALLOPATHIC PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURERS WILL SEIZE ON ONE
OF THE STRONGER, MODIFYING AND MAKING IT MORE UNNATURAL BUT MUCH MORE PATENTABLE (JAD).
ISOFLAVONOIDS ARE ANTISEPTIC AGAINST BACTERIA, CANDIDA, MYCOBACTERIUM, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS
(CAN), AND ANTIVIRAL AGAINST EPSTEIN-BARR, HERPES, NEWCASTLE, VACCINIA, AND VESICULAR STOMATITIS
VIRUS WITH NO ACTIVITY TOWARD POLIO (CAN). GLYCYRRHIZIN AND/OR GA INHIBIT IN VITRO VIRUSES LIKE
CHICKENPOX, HERPES, HIV-1, HHV-6, HHB-7 ET AL. GLYCYRRHIZIN REDUCES MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF
MICE INFECTED WITH LETHAL DOSES OF FLU VIRUS. AND LONG-TIME ADMINISTRATION OF LICORICE TO HEPATITIS
C PATIENTS PREVENTED LIVER CANCER. GLYCYRRHIZIN IS ALSO ACTIVE AGAINST TEST TUBE LEUKEMIA (TAD). MA
ET AL. (2001) NOTE THAT APOPTOSIS, INDUCED BY ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN, MAY BE HELPFUL IN STOMACH CANCER.
ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN MAY BE A PRINCIPAL ANTITUMOR CONSTITUENT OF LICORICE.
YARNELL AND ABASCAL (2000) DESCRIBED LICORICE AS ONE OF THE MOST THOROUGHLY STUDIED BOTANICAL
IMMUNOMODULATORS FOR HIV PATIENTS, BOTH GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA AND GLYCYRRHIZA URALENSIS. GLYCYRRHIZIN, THE MAJOR ACTIVE INGREDIENT SEEMS TO SERVE BOTH AS IMMUNOMODULATOR AND AN ANTIVIRAL, AN
IDEAL COMBINATION FOR HIV INFECTION. INTRAVENOUS GLYCYRRHIZIN ALSO IMPROVES LIVER FUNCTION IN
UNCONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIALS IN HIV PATIENTS. BUT THERE ARE OTHER USEFUL CONSTITUENTS BESIDES GLYCYRRHIZIN. HENCE, WHOLE PLANT EXTRACTS SHOULD BE STUDIED. WHOLE LICORICE EXTRACTS SHOULD BE COMPARED
HEAD-TO-HEAD WITH GLYCYRRHIZIN TO DETERMINE RELATIVE EFFICACY AND SAFETY (YARNELL AND ABASCAL, 2000).
STANDISH ET AL. (2002) NOTE THAT GLYCYRRHIZIN IN VITRO INHIBITS VIRAL ATTACHMENT OR FUSION. “IT MAY
ALSO INHIBIT PROTEIN KINASE C (PKC), AN ACTIVATOR OF NF-KB. WHEN 400–1600 MG GLYCYRRHIZIN WAS
ADMINISTERED IVN TO THREE HIV-POSITIVE HEMOPHILIACS, THEIR VIRAL LOAD WAS SUBSTANTIALLY LOWER AFTER
A MONTH. ANOTHER SMALL IVN STUDY IN HEMOPHILIACS SHOWED LYMPHOCYTE IMPROVEMENT IN ALL NINE
PATIENTS, CD4+/CD8+ RATIOS INCREASED IN SIX, AND CD4 LYMPHOCYTE LEVELS INCREASED IN EIGHT. IN A
THIRD OBSERVATIONAL STUDY (4 AND 7 YEARS, DAILY DOSES 150–225 MG/DAY), PATIENTS WHO RECEIVED
GLYCYRRHIZIN WHEN CD4 T-CELL COUNTS WERE ABOVE 200 MAINTAINED THOSE COUNTS; DITTO FOR THOSE
STARTING WITH COUNTS ABOVE 500. TWO RESEARCHERS INDEPENDENTLY REPORTED IMMUNE ENHANCEMENTS
(CD4 T-CELL COUNTS, CD4+/CD8+ RATIOS, LYMPHOCYTES, NKC) IN 22 HEMOPHILIAC PATIENTS OVER PERIODS
OF 3–11 YEARS (STANDISH ET AL., 2002).
AND GLYCYRRHIZIN BLOCKS ESTROGEN EFFECTS BINDING TO ESTROGEN RECEPTORS, HENCE THE ANTIESTROGENIC
ACTIVITIES REPORTED. ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY HAS ALSO BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO THE ISOFLAVONES, BUT THESE TOO MAY
BIND TO ESTROGEN RECEPTORS (JAD, CAN). MAYBE THIS IS ONE OF THOSE AMPHOTERIC HERBS. “LIQUORICE
EXHIBITS AN ALTERNATIVE ACTION ON ESTROGEN METABOLISM, CAUSING INHIBITION IF OESTROGEN CONCENTRATIONS
ARE HIGH AND POTENTIATION WHEN CONCENTRATIONS ARE LOW” (CAN). I’VE HEARD THE SAME THINGS ABOUT
CLOVER’S PHYTOESTROGENIC ISOFLAVONES, SOME OF WHICH ARE SHARED WITH LICORICE. STRANDBERG ET AL.
(2001) STUDIED BIRTH OUTCOME IN RELATION TO LICORICE CONSUMPTION DURING PREGNANCY. HEAVY GLYCYRRHIZIN EXPOSURE DURING PREGNANCY DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT BIRTH WEIGHT OR MATERNAL BLOOD PRESSURE
BUT WAS SIGNIFICANTLY ASSOCIATED WITH LOWER GESTATIONAL AGE.
GLYCYRRHIZIN NOT ONLY HAS ITS OWN ANTIARTHRITIC, ANTIEDEMIC, AND ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITIES, IT
POTENTIATES THE ANTIARTHRITIC ACTIVITIES OF HYDROCORTISONE, AT LEAST IN RATS (MPI). GLYCYRRHIZIN EVEN
POTENTIATES COCOA. LICORICE SEEMS ALSO TO POTENTIATE PREDNISOLONE IN FIVE PEMPHIGUS PATIENTS KEPT
FREE OF BULLAE WITH PREDNISOLONE. LICORICE SEEMS TO POTENTIATE BY INHIBITING METABOLIC DEGRADATIONS
OF PREDNISOLONE (MPI).
IN A STUDY OF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN
STUDIES ON LICORICE FOR ACNE VULGARIS, CHRONIC DUODENAL ULCERS, CHRONIC HEPATITIS, AND DIABETIC
HYPERKALEMIA. ORAL DGGL (380 MG, 3 × DAY) EQUALED ANTACIDS OR CIMETIDINE IN 169 PATIENTS WITH
CHRONIC DUODENAL ULCERS. INTERESTINGLY, GA INHIBITS GROWTH OF THE ULCER BACTERIA, HELICOBACTER PYLORI
(TAD). ORAL DOSE OF GA AS ANTITUSSIVE ORALLY AS CODEINE (LEG, LIL, MAB, TAD).
INDICATIONS (LICORICE) — ABSCESS (F; DAA); ADDISON’S DISEASE (1; DAA; FAY; PED; WHO);
ADENOSIS (F; JLH); ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY (1; CAN; PNC; WHO); ALLERGY (F; BOW); ALZHEIMER’S
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(1; COX; FNF); AMEBA (1; FAD); ANEMIA (F; DAA); ANOREXIA (F; DAA; WHO); ANXIETY (1; BGB);
APPENDICITIS (F; PH2; VVG; WBB; WHO); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; MAB; WHO); ASTHENIA (F; DAA);
ASTHMA (1; BGB; DEP; FAD; FAY; KAB; SKY); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; AKT); BACTERIA (1; DAA;
FNF); BILIOUSNESS (F; KAB); BO (F; KAB); BOIL (F; DAA; MAB); BPH (1; FNF); BRONCHOSIS (2;
DEP; FAD; FAY; FNF; KAB; PHR; PH2; SKY; WHO); BUG BITE (F; VVG); BURN (F; DAA); CANCER
(1; COX; DAA; FNF; HOX); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, BREAST (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, GLAND (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
KIDNEY (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, NECK (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; FNF; JLH; PM67:754); CANCER, THROAT (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, UVULA (1; FNF; JLH); CANDIDA (1; APA; FNF); CANKER SORE (F; SKY);
CARBUNCLE (F; FAY; PH2); CARIES (1; WHO); CARDIOPATHY (F; WHO); CATARACT (1; CAN); CATARRH
(2; DEP; KOM; PH2; PIP; WHO); CFS (1; MAB; SKY); CHICKENPOX (1; TAD); CHOLECYSTOSIS (1;
FAD); CIRRHOSIS (F; AKT); COLD (1; APA; CRC); COLIC (F; CAN; KAB); CONDYLOMA (F; JLH);
CONGESTION (1; APA; FNF); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (1; MAB; MPI; PH2); CONSTIPATION (F; APA; MAB;
PH2; WAM); COUGH (2; APA; DAA; DEP; FAD; FAY; FNF; KAB; PHR; PH2; PED; SUW; VVG);
CRAMP (1; FAY; FNF; MAB; VVG); CYSTOSIS (F; CRC; MAD); CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (1; PH2); DEPRESSION (F; MAB); DERMATOSIS (F; PH2); DIABETES (1; MAB); DIARRHEA (F; DAA); DIPHTHERIA (F; WHO);
DUODENOSIS (F; PH2); DYSMENORRHEA (F; APA); DYSPEPSIA (1; CRC; SKY; WHO); DYSPNEA (F; DAA);
DYSURIA (F; MAD); EARACHE (F; APA); ECZEMA (1; SKY; WAM); ENCEPHALOSIS (1; MAB); ENTEROSIS
(F; KAB; MPI); EPIGASTROSIS (1; BGB; VVG); EPILEPSY (F; KAB; WHO; PH2); FATIGUE (F; KAB);
FIBROMYALGIA (F; SKY); FLU (1; MAB; PH2; TAD); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GASTROSIS (2; CAN; DAA;
FAD; FAY; PHR; PH2); HAY FEVER (1; WAM); HEADACHE (F; PH2); HEARTBURN (F; SKY); HEMICRANIA
(F; KAB); HEMOPHILIA (1; BGB); HEMOPTYSIS (F; KAB); HEMORRHOID (F; DAA; WHO; VVG);
HEPATOSIS (2; APA; FAY; FNF; PHR; PH2; PNC); HEPATOSIS C (1; MAB); HERPES (1; AKT; APA;
MAB; WAM); HICCUP (F; KAB); HIV (1; FNF; MAB; TAD); HOARSENESS (F; DEM; DEP; FAY;
HHB); HOT FLASH (1; AKT); HYPERPHAGIA (1; MAB); HYPERTHYROID (F; DAA); HYSTERIA (F; FAY);
IBD (1; WAM); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION
(1; DAA; DEP; FNF; MPI; WBB); ITCH (F; VVG); KIDNEY STONE (F; WHO); LARYNGOSIS (F; DAA);
LEUKEMIA (1; FNF); LICHEN PLANUS (1; MAB); LOW BLOOD PRESSURE (1; MBB; PH2); LUPUS (SLE)
(1; APA); MALARIA (1; DAA; MAB); MALAISE (F; FAY); MELANOMA (1; FNF; TAD); MUCOSOSIS (1;
FAD; MAB); NAUSEA (F; DAA; KAB); NEPHROSIS (1; CAN; MAD); NEUROPATHY (1; CAN); OPHTHALMIA (F; KAB); OTOSIS (F; KAB); PAIN (1; DAA; FNF; KAB; KAP; MBB); PEMPHIGUS (1; MPI);
PHARYNGOSIS (1; BGB; DAA); PMS (1; WAM); PNEUMONIA (F; MAD); POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME
(1; BGB; MAB); POLYP (F; JLH); PSORIASIS (1; WAM); PTERYGIUM (F; JLH); RESPIROSIS (2; APA;
DEP; KOM; PIP); RETINOSIS (1; CAN); RHEUMATISM (1; FAY; WHO); RHINOSIS (F; JLH); SENILITY
(F; DAA); SHINGLES (1; BOW; MAB); SNAKEBITE (F; KAB; WHO); SORE (F; DAA; KAB); SORE THROAT
(1; APA; DAA; KAB; PH2; SUW; WAM; WHO); SPLENOSIS (1; DAA; FAY; MAD; PH2); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; FAY); STING (F; SUW); STOMATOSIS (F; MAB); STRANGURY (F; MAD); SUNBURN (F; VVG);
SWELLING (F; DAA); TETANUS (F; WHO); THIRST (F; CRC; DAA; DEP); THROMBOSIS (F; PH2); TRICHOMONAS (1; FAY); TUBERCULOSIS (1; DAA; FAY; KAB; MAB; MAD; VVG; WBB; WHO); ULCER
(2; AKT; DAA; FAY; FNF; KOM; PHR; PH2; PIP; WAM); URETHROSIS (F; WBB); UROGENITOSIS (F;
DEP; HHB; SUW); UTI (1; MAB); VAGINOSIS (1; APA); VERTIGO (F; BGB; WHO); VIRAL HEPATOSIS
(F; PHR); VIRUS (1; FNF; PH2); VOICE (F; KAB); WOUND (F; KAB; PH2); YEAST (1; APA; PH2).
LICORICE FOR CANCER:
• ADAPTOGEN: PAEONOL
• ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: GENISTEIN
• ANTIEBV: GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID
• ANTIHIV: APIGENIN; BETULINIC-ACID; GLYCYCOUMARIN; GLYCYRRHISOFLAVONE; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLICOFLAVONOL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LICOPYRANOCOUMARIN; LIGNIN; NARINGENIN; QUERCETIN
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIAGGREGANT: APIGENIN; BERGAPTEN; ESTRAGOLE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGUSTRAZINE; NARINGENIN; PAEONOL; QUERCETIN; TETRAMETHYL-PYRAZINE; THYMOL
• ANTIANGIOGENIC: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; APIGENIN; BENZALDEHYDE; BERGAPTEN; CAMPHOR;
ESTRAGOLE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; FORMONONETIN; GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GERANIOL; GLABRENE;
GLABRIDIN; GLABROL; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN;
INDOLE; ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCOUMARONE; LICOFLAVANONE; LIGNIN;
LINALOOL; LIQUIRITIGENIN; MALTOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; NARINGENIN; O-CRESOL; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; P-METHOXY-PHENOL; PHENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; SOYASAPONIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VITEXIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTICARCINOMIC: BETULINIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HEDERASAPONIN-C
• ANTIESTROGENIC: APIGENIN; ESTRIOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: FERULIC-ACID; GLUCURONIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID;
GLYCYRRHIZIN; NARINGENIN; QUERCETIN; SINAPIC-ACID
• ANTIHYALURONIDASE: APIGENIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: APIGENIN; BERGAPTEN; BETULINIC-ACID; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLIQUIRITIN; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LIQUIRITIC-ACID; LIQUIRITIGENIN; LIQUIRITIN;
LUPEOL; MANNITOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; NARINGENIN; NEOISOLIQUIRITIN; NEOLIQUIRITIN; PAEONOL;
QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE; VITEXIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTILEUKEMIC: APIGENIN; ASTRAGALIN; GENISTEIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIQUIRITIGENIN; NARINGENIN;
PINOCEMBRIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: GENISTEIN; LICOCHALCONE-A; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTILYMPHOMIC: GENISTEIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: APIGENIN; BETULINIC-ACID; CARVACROL; GENISTEIN; GERANIOL; GLYCYRRHETICACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; THYMOL
• ANTIMETASTATIC: APIGENIN; TETRAMETHYL-PYRAZINE
• ANTIMICROBIAL: GENISTEIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: APIGENIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GLABRENE; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; KAEMPFEROL; MANNITOL; N-NONACOSANE; NARINGENIN; O-CRESOL; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PAEONOL; QUERCETIN; SAPONINS; UMBELLIFERONE;
XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINEPHROTIC: ANETHOLE
• ANTINEUROBLASTOMIC: GENISTEIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: FERULIC-ACID; LIGNIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: APIGENIN; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUPEOL; MALTOL; MANNITOL;
NARINGENIN; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PHENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; THYMOL; VITEXIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: GALANGIN; LUPEOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDATIVE: NARINGENIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERATIVE: GENISTEIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GLYCYRRHIZIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISTRESS: PAEONOL
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTITUMOR: APIGENIN; BENZALDEHYDE; BERGAPTEN; BETULINIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GERANIOL; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUPEOL;
NARINGENIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIVIRAL: APIGENIN; BETULINIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GLABRANIN; GLYCYCOUMARIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHISOFLAVONE; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLICOFLAVONOL; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LICOPYRANOCOUMARIN; LIGNIN;
LINALOOL; LUPEOL; NARINGENIN; P-CYMENE; PHENOL; QUERCETIN
• ANXIOLYTIC: APIGENIN
• APOPTOTIC: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; CARVACROL; GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; THYMOL
• CYTOTOXIC: APIGENIN; BETULINIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GENISTEIN; LUPEOL; PINOCEMBRIN; QUERCETIN;
XANTHOTOXIN
• DNA-BINDER: ESTRAGOLE
• ESTROGEN-AGONIST: GENISTEIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BETAINE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID;
GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; HERNIARIN; QUERCETIN; SOYASAPONIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE; ASTRAGALIN; BENZALDEHYDE; FERULIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID;
GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN
• INTERFERONOGENIC: GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN
• LEUCOCYTOGENIC: ANETHOLE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• MITOGENIC: GLYCYRRHIZIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PKC-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN; QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASE-INHIBITOR: GLYCYRRHIZIN
• SUNSCREEN: APIGENIN; FERULIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-POISON: GENISTEIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: GENISTEIN; QUERCETIN
LICORICE FOR ULCER:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; METHYL-SALICYLATE; P-CYMENE;
PAEONOL; PHENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; THYMOL
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; EUGENOL;
GUAIACOL; LINALOOL; PHENOL; PINOCEMBRIN; THYMOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ACETIC-ACID; ACETOPHENONE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; APIGENIN; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL; GLABRIDIN; GLABROL; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; GUAIACOL; HERNIARIN;
HISPAGLABRIDIN-A; HISPAGLABRIDIN-B; INDOLE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LINALOOL;
NARINGENIN; P-CYMENE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PAEONOL; PHENETHYL-ALCOHOL; PHENOL;
PINOCEMBRIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL; TETRAMETHYL-PYRAZINE;
THUJONE; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: APIGENIN; BERGAPTEN; BETULINIC-ACID; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLIQUIRITIN; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LIQUIRITIC-ACID; LIQUIRITIGENIN; LIQUIRITIN;
LUPEOL; MANNITOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; NARINGENIN; NEOISOLIQUIRITIN; NEOLIQUIRITIN; PAEONOL;
QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE; VITEXIN; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: APIGENIN; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUPEOL; MALTOL; MANNITOL;
NARINGENIN; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PHENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; THYMOL; VITEXIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GLYCYRRHIZIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CRESOL; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; GLABRANIN; GLABRENE; GLABRIDIN; GLABROL; GLYCYRRHIZIN; GUAIACOL; HEXANOL; HISPAGLABRIDIN-A; HISPAGLABRIDIN-B; KAEMPFEROL;
LINALOOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; O-CRESOL; OXALIC-ACID; PHENETHYL-ALCOHOL; PHENOL; PINOCEMBRIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTISPASMODIC: ANETHOLE; APIGENIN; BENZALDEHYDE; BERGAPTEN; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL;
EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENISTEIN; GERANIOL; HERNIARIN; ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LIQUIRITIGENIN; MANNITOL; NARINGENIN; QUERCETIN; TETRAMETHYL-PYRAZINE; THUJONE; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• ANTIULCER: EUGENOL; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LIQUIRITIGENIN; LIQUIRITIN; NARINGENIN
• ANTIVIRAL: APIGENIN; BETULINIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALANGIN; GENISTEIN; GLABRANIN; GLYCYCOUMARIN; GLYCYRRHETIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHISOFLAVONE; GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIN; ISOLICOFLAVONOL; KAEMPFEROL; LICOCHALCONE-A; LICOPYRANOCOUMARIN; LIGNIN;
LINALOOL; LUPEOL; NARINGENIN; P-CYMENE; PHENOL; QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: MALIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; CARVACROL; GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; THYMOL
• FUNGICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; ACETOPHENONE; ANETHOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL;
EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; FORMONONETIN; FURFURAL; GENISTEIN; GERANIOL; HEDERASAPONIN-C; HERNIARIN; ISOLIQUIRITIN; ISOMUCRONULATOL; LICOISOFLAVONE-A; LINALOOL; LIQUIRITIGENIN; LIQUIRITIN;
NARINGENIN; OCTANOIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PAEONOL; PHENOL; PINOCEMBRIN; PROPIONIC-ACID; PRUNETIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLIC-ACID; SINAPIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL; THYMOL; UMBELLIFERONE; XANTHOTOXIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALANGIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MDR-INHIBITOR: GENISTEIN
• VULNERARY: BENZOIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
OTHER USES (LICORICE) — GROWN PRIMARILY FOR ITS DRIED RHIZOME AND ROOTS, IT IS A CONDIMENT AND
USED TO FLAVOR CANDIES AND TOBACCOS. ROOTS ARE THE SOURCE OF LICORICE POWDER AND EXTRACT, WIDELY
EMPLOYED IN BAKED GOODS, CONFECTION, ICE CREAM, SOFT DRINKS, ETC. DUTCH CONFECTIONERS PRODUCE
SWEET AND SALTY VERSIONS OF LICORICE DROPS. SOME CANDY MAKERS AUGMENT THE ANETHOLE FLAVOR WITH
OIL OF ANISE. MOST “LICORICE” CANDY CONTAINS LITTLE OR NO LICORICE BUT IS FLAVORED WITH ANISE OIL.
GLYCYRRHIZIN IS SOME 50–100 TIMES SWEETER THAN SUGAR. GLYCYRRHIZIN POTENTIATES THE FLAVOR OF COCOA,
REPLACING 25% COCOA IN MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. A TEA MADE FROM THE POWDERED ROOTSTOCK IS
CONSUMED DIRECTLY OR ADDED TO OTHER HERBAL TEAS TO SWEETEN THEM NATURALLY. I USED THEM TO STIR HERBAL
TEAS, SWEETENING THEM GENTLY IN THE PROCESS. I ALSO USE THEM TO MAKE LIQUEURS. ONE OLD COLD REMEDY,
WHICH I CALL “LICORICE LIQUEUR,” WAS A BRITISH BEER BREWED OF LICORICE, FENNEL, ANISE SEED, ELECAMPANE,
AND SASSAFRAS. I STEEP THEM ALL IN VODKA TO MAKE THE LICORICE LIQUEUR. MAYBE IT CURES THE COLD; SURELY
IT INTOXICATES. OTHERS PUT 4 TBSP LICORICE ROOT IN A FIFTH OF VODKA AND LET IT STAND A COUPLE OF DAYS
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN A DARK PLACE, THEN STRAIN AND ADD SUGAR SYRUP (1 CUP SUGAR DISSOLVED IN 1/2 CUP WATER). IN
NINETEENTH-CENTURY PARIS, A DRINK WAS MADE FROM LICORICE AND LEMON CALLED “COCO” (AAR). ADDING
LEMON JUICE TO A LICORICE INFUSION PRODUCES A RATHER FULL-BODIED LEMONADE (AAR). LEGEND SUGGESTS
THAT SCYTHIAN WARRIORS COULD SURVIVE 12 DAYS WITHOUT DRINK IF SUPPLIED WITH LICORICE AND MARE’S
MILK CHEESE (TAD). ACCORDING TO ROSE, QUANTITIES OF LICORICE WERE STORED IN KING TUT’S TOMB.
LICORICE STICKS AND BREWER’S LICORICE ARE ADDED TO BEER FOR INCREASED HEAD RETENTION AND TO GIVE
THICKNESS, FLAVOR, AND BLACKNESS TO PORTER AND STOUT (FAC). SINGERS CHEW THE ROOT TO STRENGTHEN THE
THROAT. IN INDIA, LICORICE ROOT IS CHEWED WITH BETEL. LICORICE IS USED IN CHINESE COOKING IN SOUPS
AND MEATS SLOW-BRAISED UNTIL TENDER IN MULTISPICED SOY SAUCE. GROUND LICORICE ROOT SOMETIMES
APPEARS IN CHINESE FIVE-SPICE POWDER (AAR). GRAIN COFFEES CAN BE FLAVORED WITH THE EXTRACT (FAC).
THE LEAVES, CALLED “NAKHALSA,” ARE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR TEA IN MONGOLIA (FAC). MOST LICORICE
PRODUCTION IS USED BY THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY AND FOR THE PREPARATION OF LICORICE PASTE, LICORICE EXTRACT,
POWDERED ROOT, AND MAFEO SYRUP. SPENT LICORICE SERVES IN FIRE-EXTINGUISHING AGENTS, TO INSULATE
FIBERBOARDS, AND AS A COMPOST FOR GROWING MUSHROOMS; ALSO, IN FEED FOR CATTLE, HORSES, AND CHICKENS.
(AAR, CRC, FAC, LEG, LIL).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (LICORICE) — AS TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) PUT IT, LICORICE IS SO EASILY GROWN THAT IT
HAS THE POTENTIAL TO BECOME A WEED. BOWN (2001) LISTS IT FOR ZONES 7–9. SEED SHOULD BE SCARIFIED OR
SOAKED OVERNIGHT AND SOWN IN SPRING. PERENNIAL PLANTS CAN BE DIVIDED IN SPRING OR AUTUMN. STOLON
CUTTINGS BETTER MADE IN SPRING (BOWN, 2001). LICORICE SEEMS TO THRIVE IN FULL SUN, ON DEEP SANDY SOILS,
MOIST BUT NOT WATERLOGGED, PH 5.5–8.2 (AVERAGE 7.1). IT IS USUALLY PLANTED IN SPRING FROM CROWN DIVISIONS
SPACED ABOUT 18 IN APART IN THE ROWS. PLANTS SHOULD BE WEEDED OR INTERCROPPED WITH CATCH CROPS SUCH
AS CABBAGE, CARROT, OR POTATO. IT TAKES 3–4 YEARS TO PRODUCE MARKETABLE ROOTS. FLOWERS ARE OFTEN PINCHED
OFF TO ENCOURAGE ROOT PRODUCTION.APPARENTLY, GLYCYRRHIZIN IS MAXIMAL AT FLOWERING TIME.AND THE THICKER
THE ROOT, THE MORE GLYCYRRHIZIN. HARVEST IS LABOR INTENSIVE AS THE ROOTS ARE DEEP AND AS LONG AS 25 FT (8
M). ROOTS ARE WASHED AFTER DIGGING AND THEN DRIED. ROOT YIELDS OFTEN RUN 2000–4000 LB/A (= ~2000–4000
KG/HA), BUT YIELDS OF 22,000 LB/A DRIED ROOT HAVE BEEN ATTAINED, FROM 50,000 LB/A IN RUSSIA. CULTIVATED
STANDS PRODUCE TWO TO THREE TIMES MORE ROOT THAN WEEDY STANDS IN EURASIA (LEG, TAD).
CHEMISTRY (LICORICE) — HERE ARE JUST A FEW OF THE CHEMICALS, SOME ALMOST RESTRICTED TO LICORICE. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM,
DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
GLYCYRRHETINIC-ACID — BETA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIADDISONIAN; ANTIALLERGIC 600 MG/KG IPR; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC 600 MG/KG IPR; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICIRRHOTIC;
ANTICOMPLEMENT 0.1 ΜM; ANTIDIURETIC; ANTIEBV; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIERYTHEMIC; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC 50–500 ΜG/ML; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMELANOMIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROSTATIC; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTISTOMATITIC; ANTITUMOR-PROMOTER; ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER;
ANTIVACCINIA; ANTIVIRAL; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPERTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; INTERFERONGENIC; MINERTALCORTICOID; ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR.
GLYCYRRHINIC-ACID — ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIOPHIDIC; ANTITETANIC; ANTITOXIC.
GLYCYRRHISOFLAVANONE — XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = >100 ΜM.
GLYCYRRHISOFLAVONE — ANTIHERPETIC EC50 = >10 ΜG/ML; ANTIHIV; ANTIVIRAL EC50 = >10 ΜG/ML, 20
ΜG/ML; MAOI IC50 = 60–140 ΜM, IC50 = 95; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 53 ΜM.
GLYCYRRHIZAN-UC — IMMUNOMODULATOR; RES-ACTIVATOR.
GLYCYRRHIZIC-ACID — ANTIADDISONIAN; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICIRRHOTIC; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTISTOMATITIC; ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER; ANTIVIRAL; 11BHSD-INHIBITOR; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPERTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT.
G
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
GLYCYRRHIZIN — ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC; AMPHIESTROGENIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIADDISONIAN; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER;
ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY; ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTICATARACT; ANTICIRRHOTIC; ANTIDIPTHERIC; ANTIDOTE; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIESTROGENIC; ANTIFLU; ANTIGINGIVITIC; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC 1000 ΜG/ML; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHIV 0.6 MM; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPLAQUE; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTISEBORRHEIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISTOMATITIC;
ANTITETANIC; ANTITHROMBIC; ANTITUSSIVE; ANTIULCER; ANTIVACCINIC; ANTIVIRAL 8 MM; CANDIDICIDE;
CHOLERETIC; DETOXICANT; ERGOGENIC 40–80 MG/MAY/DAY/SHORTTERM; ESTROGENIC; EXPECTORANT;
HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPERTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; INTERFERONOGENIC; MAOI IC50 = 160 ΜM;
MINERALCORTICOID; MITOGENIC; PANCREAPROTECTIVE; PSEUDOALDOSTERONISTIC; REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASEINHIBITOR; SWEETENER (50 × SUCROSE).
ISOLICOFLAVANOL — ANTIHIV 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIVIRAL 20 ΜG/ML; AROMATASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.1 ΜM.
ISOLIENSININE — ANTITUMOR; CYTOTOXIC 16 PPM.
ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.32 ΜM; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTICANCER; ANTIDEPRESSANT; ANTIDIABETIC; ANTIPEROXIDASE; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIULCER; APOPTOTIC; CYCLOOXYGENASEINHIBITOR; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; MAOI EC50 = 17 ΜM, IC50 = >200; PIGMENT.
ISOLIQUIRITIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.72 ΜM; ANTIANGIOGENIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY;
FUNGICIDE; MAOI; PHYTOALEXIN.
LICOCOUMARONE — ANTICANCER; MAOI IC50 = 60–140 ΜM, IC50 = 60 ΜM; XANTHINE-OXIDASEINHIBITOR IC50 = 13 ΜM.
LICOFLAVANONE — ANTICANCER.
LICOFURANONE — MAOI IC50 = 60–140 ΜM, IC50 = 87 ΜM.
LICOISOFLAVONE-A — ANTIFEEDANT 1.2 PPM; FUNGICIDE ED50 = <50; PHYTOALEXIN.
LICOISOFLAVONE-B — ANTIFEEDANT ED50 = <1 PPM.
LICOPYRANOCOUMARIN — ANTIHERPETIC EC50 = >10 ΜG/ML; ANTIHIV 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIVIRAL EC50
= >10 ΜG/ML; MAOI IC50 = 60–140 ΜM, IC50 = 140 ΜM; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR IC50
= >100 ΜM.
LICORICIN — ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY.
LICORIONE — ANTIULCER.
LIQUIRITIGENIN — ANTICANCER; ANTIDEPRESSANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILEUKEMIC IC50 = 0.290 ΜG/ML;
ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIULCER; CNS-ACTIVE; FUNGICIDE ED50 = >100; HEMOGLOBIN-INDUCER; MAOI;
PHYTOALEXIN.
LIQUIRITIGENIN-CHALCONE — ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIULCER.
LIQUIRITIN — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIULCER; FUNGICIDE; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR.
LIQUIRITONE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY.
LIQUIRITOSIDE — ANALGESIC; ANTICONVULSANT.
H
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
H
HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA L. (MALVACEAE)
INDIAN SORREL, JAMAICA SORREL, KHARKADI, RED SORREL, ROSELLE
MEDICINAL USES (ROSELLE) — WRITING THIS AT 6:00 A.M., JANUARY 1, 2001, STARTING THE NEW MILLENNIUM,
I COULDN’T HELP BUT BE DELIGHTED AT MY NEW HANGOVER REMEDY, POSSIBLY APHRODISIAC, THAT JUST MIGHT
PREVENT CANCER, LOWER BLOOD PRESSURE AND BLOOD SUGAR, AND COULD BE A COSMETIC FOR FACE PEELS. I
CALL IT “KHARKARINDO,” REFLECTING ITS MAJOR INGREDIENTS, KHARKADI (DRIED-FLOWERS MINUS-OVARY) AND
TAMARINDO, ALSO COVERED IN THIS SPICE BOOK. YES, BOTH KHARKADI AND TAMARINDO ARE LOADED WITH TASTY
HYDROXYCITRIC “FRUIT” ACIDS. CALLING IT “SOUR TEA,” HAJI FARAJI AND HAJI TARKHANI (1999) STUDIED CA.
50 PATIENTS WITH MODERATE ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION. PATIENTS WITH SECONDARY HYPERTENSION OR CONSUMING MORE THAN TWO DRUGS WERE EXCLUDED. STATISTICAL FINDINGS SHOWED 11.2% LOWERING OF THE SYSTOLIC
BLOOD PRESSURE AND A 10.7% DECREASE OF DIASTOLIC PRESSURE IN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 12 DAYS AFTER
BEGINNING THE SOUR TEA TREATMENT, AS COMPARED WITH THE FIRST DAY, PROVING THE “PUBLIC BELIEF” IN
HYPOTENSIVE ACTIVITY OF SOUR TEA (X10404421). ADEGUNLOYE ET AL. (1996) DEMONSTRATED AN ANTIHYPERTENSIVE EFFECT OF AQUEOUS ROSELLE EXTRACTS, WHICH CAUSED A DOSE-DEPENDENT DECREASE IN MEAN
ARTERIAL PRESSURE OF RATS.
REPORTED TO BE ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, CHOLAGOGUE, DEMULCENT, DIGESTIVE,
DIURETIC, EMOLLIENT, LAXATIVE, RESOLVENT, SEDATIVE, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC. THE FLOWERS CONTAIN GOSSYPETIN, ANTHOCYANIN, AND GLUCOSIDE HIBISCIN, WHICH MAY HAVE DIURETIC AND CHOLERETIC EFFECTS, DECREASING THE VISCOSITY OF THE BLOOD, REDUCING BLOOD PRESSURE, AND STIMULATING INTESTINAL PERISTALSIS. A
DRINK, MADE BY PLACING THE CALYX IN WATER, IS EVEN A FOLK REMEDY FOR CANCER. MEDICINALLY, LEAVES
ARE EMOLLIENT AND ARE MUCH USED IN GUINEA AS A ANTIPYRETIC, DIURETIC, AND SEDATIVE. FRUITS ARE
ANTISCORBUTIC. LEAVES, SEEDS, AND RIPE CALYCES ARE DIURETIC AND ANTISCORBUTIC, AND THE SUCCULENT CALYX,
BOILED IN WATER, IS USED AS A DRINK IN BILIOUS ATTACKS. IN BURMA, THE SEED ARE USED FOR DEBILITY, THE
LEAVES AS EMOLLIENT. ANGOLANS USE THE MUCILAGINOUS LEAVES AS AN EMOLLIENT AND AS A SOOTHING COUGH
REMEDY. CENTRAL AFRICANS POULTICE THE LEAVES ON ABSCESSES. TAIWANESE REGARD THE SEED AS DIURETIC,
LAXATIVE, AND TONIC. PHILIPPINES USE THE BITTER ROOT AS AN APERITIF AND TONIC. ALCOHOLICS MIGHT CONSIDER
ONE ITEM: SIMULATED INGESTION OF THE PLANT EXTRACT DECREASED THE RATE OF ABSORPTION OF ALCOHOL,
LESSENING THE INTENSITY OF ALCOHOL EFFECTS IN CHICKENS (DAD).
SACHDEWA ET AL. (2001) DEMONSTRATED THE HYPOGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY OF THE LEAF EXTRACT IN GLUCOSE
AND STREPTOZOTOCIN INDUCED HYPERGLYCEMIC RATS. ADMINISTRATION OF THE EXTRACT ONCE A DAY FOR SEVEN
DAYS, AT AN ORAL DOSE EQUIVALENT TO 250 MG/KG, SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE IN RATS. THE
PEAK BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL WAS OBTAINED AT 30 MIN OF GLUCOSE LOAD (2 G KG(–1)), THEREAFTER A DECREASING
TREND WAS RECORDED UP TO 120 MIN. AT 250 MG/KG, THE EFFICACY OF THE EXTRACT WAS 51.5% OF
TOLBUTAMIDE AT 100 MG/KG. THE DATA SUGGEST THAT THE HYPOGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY IS COMPARABLE TO
TOLBUTAMIDE AND NOT TO GLIBENCLAMIDE TREATMENT.
CHEWONARIN ET AL. (1999) FOUND THE 80% ETHANOL EXTRACT OF ROSELLE WAS ANTIMUTAGENIC AND
CHEMOPREVENTIVE IN SEVERAL COLON CANCER MODELS. TSENG ET AL. (2000) REPORTED THAT HIBISCUS PROTOCATECHUIC ACID INDUCED APOPTOSIS IN HUMAN LEUKEMIA CELLS. THIS PHENOLIC COMPOUND FROM THE DRIED
FLOWER ALSO HAD ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTITUMOR PROMOTION EFFECTS IN THEIR STUDIES (TSENG ET AL., 2000).
H
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IF WE CAN BELIEVE KASTURE ET AL. (2000), THE ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS OF THE FLOWERS HAVE ANTICONVULSANT,
ANXIOGENIC, CNS-DEPRESSANT, AND SEROTONINERGIC ACTIVITIES. THE EXTRACTS PROTECTED ANIMALS FROM
INDUCED CONVULSIONS IN MICE AND RAISED BRAIN CONTENTS OF GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA) AND
SEROTONIN. THEY WERE FOUND TO BE ANXIOGENIC AND TO DEPRESS THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. WANG ET AL.
(2000) SHOWED THAT THE FLORAL ANTHOCYANINS PROTECTED AGAINST HEPATIC TOXICITY IN RATS. THEY QUENCHED
FREE RADICALS AT 100 TO 200 ΜG/ML. ORAL PRETREATMENT OF THE ANTHOCYANINS (100 AND 200 MG/KG) FOR
5 DAYS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWERED SERUM LEVELS OF HEPATIC ENZYME MARKERS (ALANINE AND ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE) AND REDUCED OXIDATIVE LIVER DAMAGE, INFLAMMATORY LIVER LESIONS, NECROSIS. HANSAWASDI
ET AL. (2000, 2001) REPORTED ON THREE ALPHA-AMYLASE INHIBITORS FROM ROSELLE TEA EXTRACT WHICH STRONGLY
INHIBITS PORCINE PANCREATIC ALPHA-AMYLASE (CITRIC ACID, HIBISCUS ACID AND ITS 6-METHYL ESTER).
INDICATIONS (ROSELLE) — ABSCESS (1; CRC; WBB); ANOREXIA (F; APA; CRC; KOM; PH2); APHTHA
(1; FNF); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; CRC); BACTERIA (1; HHB); BILIOUSNESS (F; CRC); CALCULUS (1; FNF);
CANCER (F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; X10478827); CARBUNCLE (F; PH2); CARDIOPATHY (F; APA); CATARRH
(F; KOM); CHILL (F; APA; PED); CIRCULOSIS (F; PH2); COLD (1; FNF; PHR; PH2); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F;
PH2); CONSTIPATION (F; APA; KOM); CONVULSION (1; X10904147); COUGH (1; CRC; WBB); CRAMP
(1; APA; HHB; PED); DEBILITY (F; CRC); DIABETES (1; X11495291); DYSPEPSIA (1; CRC; FNF; PHR);
DYSURIA (F; CRC); ENTEROSIS (1; CRC); FEVER (F; CRC; HHB); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GASTROSIS (F; PH2);
HANGOVER (F; CRC); HEART (F; CRC); HERPES ZOSTER (F; PH2); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; CRC;
X10457797); INFECTION (1; APA; CRC; FNF); INFLAMMATION (F; PH2); INTOXICATION (F; CRC; WBB);
KIDNEY STONE (1; APA; FNF); NEUROPATHY (1; APA); NEUROSIS (F; CRC); OPHTHALMIA (F; PH2);
RESPIROSIS (F; APA; PED; PH2); SCURVY (F; CRC); SEBORRHEA (1; FNF); STRANGURY (F; CRC); SWELLING
(F; PH2); TUBERCULOSIS (1; HHB); VIRUS (F; PH2). (COMMISSION E LIST IT AS UNAPPROVED; KOM.)
ROSELLE FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ACE-INHIBITOR: GOSSYPETIN
• ANTIARRHYTHMIC: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIISCHEMIC: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: DELPHINIDIN; DELPHINIDIN-3-GLUCOSIDE; GOSSYPETIN; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• DIURETIC: GLYCOLIC-ACID
• SEDATIVE: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL
ROSELLE FOR CRAMP:
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTISPASMODIC: BENZALDEHYDE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GOSSYPETIN
• SEDATIVE: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL
OTHER USES (ROSELLE) — SOURCE OF A RED BEVERAGE KNOWN AS “JAMAICA” IN MEXICO (SAID TO CONTAIN
CITRIC ACID AND SALTS, SERVING AS A DIURETIC). CALYX IS WHAT GIVES THE RED TO MY FAVORITE COMMERCIAL
TEA, RED ZINGER (LEMONGRASS, HIBISCUS FLOWERS, ROSE HIPS, ORANGE PEEL, AND PEPPERMINT LEAVES).
CALYX IS CALLED “KARKADE” IN SWITZERLAND, A NAME NOT TOO DIFFERENT FROM THE ARABIC KHARKADI.
KARKADE IS USED IN JAMS, JELLIES, SAUCES, AND WINES. IN THE WEST INDIES AND ELSEWHERE IN THE TROPICS,
THE FLESHY CALYCES ARE USED FRESH FOR MAKING ROSELLE WINE, JELLY, SYRUP, GELATIN, REFRESHING BEVERAGES,
PUDDING AND CAKES, AND TO COLOR AND FLAVOR RUM. THE DRIED ROSELLE IS USED FOR TEA, JELLY, MARMALADE,
ICES, ICE CREAM, SHERBETS, BUTTER, PIES, SAUCES, TARTS, AND OTHER DESSERTS. TENDER LEAVES AND STALKS ARE
EATEN AS SALAD AND AS A POT-HERB AND ARE USED FOR SEASONING CURRIES. FRUITS ARE EDIBLE. SEEDS,
CONTAINING AN EDIBLE OIL, HAVE BEEN USED AS AN APHRODISIAC COFFEE SUBSTITUTE. SEED HAS PROPERTIES
H
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SIMILAR TO THOSE OF COTTON SEED OIL AND IS USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR CRUDE CASTOR OIL. SEED CAN BE EATEN
OR MADE INTO AN OILY SAUCE (BOWN, 2001). SUDANESE FERMENT THE SEEDS TO MAKE A MEAT SUBSTITUTE
CALLED “FURUNDU.” ROSELLE IS ALSO CULTIVATED FOR THE BAST FIBER OBTAINED FROM THE STEMS. THE FIBER
STRANDS, UP TO 1.5 M LONG, ARE USED FOR CORDAGE AND AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR JUTE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
BURLAP. RESIDUES CAN BE USED AS A CHEAP FUEL (DAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (ROSELLE) — BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS WELL-DRAINED BUT MOIST, CIRCUMNEUTRAL TO ALKALINE
SOILS, IN FULL SUN IN WARM CLIMATES (ZONE 9–11). SOIL SHOULD BE TILLED DEEP, ABOUT 20 CM, AND
THOROUGHLY. SEED, 10–22 KG/HA DEPENDING UPON THE SOIL, IS DRILLED ABOUT 15 CM BY 15 CM AT BEGINNING
OF RAINY SEASON, MID-APRIL IN INDIA, PLANTING TO A DEPTH OF ABOUT 0.5 CM. SEED AT 5.5–7.5 KG/HA FOR
A POPULATION OF 60,000 PLANTS/HA. BROADCASTING RESULTS IN UNEVEN STAND AND HENCE LACK OF UNIFORMITY
IN FIBER. SEEDS CAN BE STARTED IN FLATS AND TRANSPLANTED. WHEN GROWN FOR ITS FIBER, IT IS PLANTED CLOSELY
TO PRODUCE LONG STEMS WITH LITTLE FOLIAGE. WEED CAREFULLY DURING FIRST MONTH. A DRESSING OF NPK
BEFORE SOWING OR PLANTING MAY PROMOTE EARLY GROWTH ON SOILS THAT ARE MARGINALLY FERTILE. ROSELLE
RESPONDS FAVORABLY TO NITROGEN, AND 45 KG/HA IS A SAFE LEVEL IN INDIA, APPLIED IN THE FORM OF COMPOST
OR MINERAL FERTILIZER WITH A SMALL QUANTITY OF PHOSPHATE. IN JAVA, GREEN-MANURE (MIMOSA INVISA) IS
PLOWED UNDER BEFORE IT MATURES SEEDS. JAVANESE RECOMMEND 80 KG N/HA, 36–54 KG P2O5/HA, AND
75–100 KG K2O/HA. ROTATIONS ARE SOMETIMES USED, SINCE THE ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE IS A PEST. A
SEQUENCE OF A LEGUME GREEN-MANURE CROP, THEN ROSELLE, AND THEN CORN IS SUGGESTED. FOR HOME GARDENS
OF ROSELLE, SEEDS ARE SOWN DIRECTLY IN ROWS ABOUT MAY 15. AFTER GERMINATION, SEEDLINGS ARE THINNED
TO STAND 1 M APART. FOR LARGER PLANTINGS, SEEDS ARE SOWN IN PROTECTED SEEDBEDS AND THE SEEDLINGS
TRANSPLANTED TO 1.3–2.6 M APART IN ROWS 2–3.3 M APART. APPLICATIONS OF MANURE OR COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS ARE BENEFICIAL. THE RED CALYCES RIPEN ABOUT 3 WEEKS AFTER THE ONSET OF FLOWERING (SOME
100–160 DAYS AFTER TRANSPLANTING). THE FRUIT CONSISTS OF THE LARGE REDDISH CALYCES SURROUNDING THE
SMALL SEED PODS (CAPSULES). CAPSULES ARE EASILY SEPARATED BUT NEED NOT BE REMOVED BEFORE COOKING.
CALYX PRODUCTION RANGES FROM CA. 1.5 KG (CALIFORNIA), TO 2 KG (PUERTO RICO), AND TO 7.5 KG/PLANT
IN SOUTH FLORIDA. PRODUCTION YIELDS ARE 8–10 MT/HA CALYCES, 10 MT LEAVES, 200 KG/HA SEED. DUALPURPOSE PLANTINGS CAN YIELD 17,000 KG OF HERBAGE IN THREE CUTTINGS AND LATER 6300 KG OF CALYCES.
AVERAGE FIBER PRODUCTION IS 1700 KG/HA, WITH AS MUCH AS 3500 KG/HA REPORTED (MALAYA) (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (ROSELLE) — WROBEL ET AL. (2000) COMPARED ALUMINUM, CHROMIUM, COPPER, IRON, MANGANESE, AND NICKEL CONTENTS IN TEAS OF BLACK TEA, GREEN TEA, MATE, AND ROSELLE. ROSELLE CONTAINED
(272 ± 19 ΜG/G), MATE (369 ± 22 ΜG/G) AS COMPARED TO BLACK TEA (759 ± 31 ΜG/G) OR GREEN TEA (919
± 29 ΜG/G). THE AUTHORS SUGGESTED THAT MATE COULD BE A GOOD DIETARY SOURCE OF MANGANESE (TOTAL
CONTENT 2223 ± 110 ΜG/G, 48.1% LEACHED TO THE INFUSION). THE ROSELLE TEA COULD SUPPLY MORE IRON
(111 ± 5 ΜG/G TOTAL, 40.5% LEACHED) AND COPPER (5.9 ± 0.3 ΜG/G TOTAL, 93.4% LEACHED). THE LOWER
THE TANNINS LEVEL, THE BETTER THE MINERAL EXTRACTION INTO THE TEA (X11314985). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE
MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ROSELLE. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE
USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ANTHOCYANINS — ANTIARTHRITIC 120 MG/MAN ORL; ANTICOLLEGENASE; ANTIELASTASE; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIMYOPIC 600 MG/MAN ORL; ANTINYCTALOPIC 600 MG/MAN ORL; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTITUMOR 120 MG/MAN ORL;
ANTIVIRAL; HEMOSTAT; GOITROGENIC; NO-SCAVENGER; VASOACTIVE; VASODILATOR.
CITRIC-ACID — ALPHA-AMYLASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIAPHTHIC 20,000 PPM; ANTICALCULIC;
ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT SYNERGIST; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEBORRHEIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTITUMOR; HEMOSTAT; IRRITANT; LAXATIVE?; LITHOLYTIC; ODONTOLYTIC; LD50 = 975 IPR RAT; LD50 = 6730 MG/KG ORL RAT.
GOSSYPETIN — ACE-INHIBITOR IC60–90 = 333 ΜG/ML; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT;
PIGMENT.
H
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HIBISCIN-CHLORIDE — ANTISEPTIC.
HIBISCUS-ACID — ALPHA-AMYLASE-INHIBITOR.
MALIC-ACID — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL; ANTIOXIDANT SYNERGIST; ANTISEBORRHEIC; ANTISEPTIC;
ANTITUBERCULAR; ANTITUMOR; BRUCHIPHOBE; HEMOPOIETIC; LAXATIVE?; SIALAGOGUE; LDLO = 1600 ORL RAT.
I
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
I
ILLICIUM VERUM HOOK. F. (ILLICIACEAE)
CHINESE STAR ANISE
MEDICINAL USES (STAR ANISE) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, ANTIRHEUMATIC, ANTISEPTIC, CARMINATIVE,
DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT, LACTAGOGUE, PEDICULICIDE, PISCICIDE, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC, AND VERMIFUGE, STAR
ANISE IS ALSO A FOLK REMEDY FOR BACK AILMENTS, BLADDER AILMENTS, CROUP, DIARRHEA, FEVER, NERVOUSNESS,
VOMITING, AND WHOOPING COUGH. USED IN COUGH MEDICINES AND COUGH DROPS, PERHAPS DUE TO EXPECTORANTS CINEOLE AND TERPINEOL, WHICH INCREASE LIQUID SECRETIONS FROM MUCOUS MEMBRANES, FACILITATING
PRODUCTIVE COUGHS. A MEDICINAL TEA IS MADE FROM THE LEAVES IN CHINA (DAD). ANISE OIL IS A GOOD
CARMINATIVE, SETTLING THE STOMACH (RIN).
TEISSEDRE AND WATERHOUSE (2000) LOOK AT THE ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF EOS OF SPICES AND CULINARY
HERBS. THEY FIRST ASSESSED EOS AS ANTIBACTERIAL AND ANTIFUNGAL, SECOND AS FLAVORANTS AND PRESERVATIVES
WHEN ADDED TO FOODS, AND THIRD AS USED IN COSMETOLOGY, FOR THEIR AROMATIC AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES.
IN THEIR SURVEY OF 23 EOS, STAR ANISE WAS THE MOST POTENT LDL ANTIOXIDANT (IC83 = 2 ΜM) WITH
SPANISH RED THYME (THYMUS ZYGIS). MAYBE A LITTLE STAR ANISE IN RED WINE WOULD PLEASE THE IMBIBER
IF NOT THE ENOLOGISTS (JAF4:3801).
CHINESE STAR ANISE SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH JAPANESE STAR ANISE, I. LANCEOLATUM A. C. SMITH,
WHICH IS SAID TO BE HIGHLY POISONOUS. TOXICITIES OF ANETHOLE, ISOSAFROLE, AND SAFROLE WERE DISCUSSED
BY BUCHANAN (1978) (GRAS §182.10 AND 182.20) (DAD).
INDICATIONS (STAR ANISE) — ANEMIA (1; APA); ANOREXIA (2; PHR; PH2); ARTHROSIS (F; PH2);
BACTERIA (1; APA; FNF); BRONCHOSIS (2; APA; FNF; PHR; PH2); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CATARRH (2;
KOM; PHR; PH2); CHOLECYTOSIS (F; CRC); COLIC (1; APA; CRC); CONGESTION (1; APA; FNF);
CONSTIPATION (F; CRC); COUGH (2; APA; CRC; PHR; PH2); CRAMP (1; APA; DEP; FNF; PH2);
DYSENTERY (F; CRC; DEP; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (2; APA; CRC; FNF; KOM; PH2); ENTEROSIS (1; PH2);
EXTROPHY (F; CRC); FAVUS (F; CRC); FRIGIDITY (F; APA); FUNGUS (1; FNF; LAF); GAS (1; APA; DEP;
PH2); GASTROSIS (1; APA; PHR; PH2); HALITOSIS (F; APA; CRC); HEMOPAREISIS (F; PH2); HERNIA (F;
CRC); INFECTION (1; APA; CRC; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); INSOMNIA (F; CRC); LUMBAGO (F;
CRC); MORNING SICKNESS (F; APA); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; LAF); NAUSEA (F; APA); NERVOUSNESS (1;
FNF); OTOSIS (F; CRC); PAIN (F; CRC; PH2); PARALYSIS (F; PH2); PARTURITION (F; APA); RESPIROSIS
(2; KOM; LAF; PHR; PH2); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC; PH2); SCABIES (1; APA; CRC); SPASM (2; CRC;
FNF; LAF); STOMACH DISTRESS (1; APA); TOOTHACHE (F; CRC).
STAR ANISE FOR BRONCHOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; HYDROQUINONE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROLIDOL; PCYMENE; RUTIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: LINALOOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; RUTIN
I
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-3-CARENE; QUERCETIN3-O-GALACTOSIDE; RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYDROQUINONE; MYRCENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; RUTIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ANETHOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; RUTIN
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; KAEMPFEROL-3-O-GLUCOSIDE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
P-CYMENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; RUTIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• CANDIDICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ANETHOLE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHENE;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE
STAR ANISE FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: ANISATIN; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-3-CARENE; QUERCETIN3-O-GALACTOSIDE; RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYDROQUINONE; MYRCENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; RUTIN
• ANTIULCER: BETA-BISABOLENE
• CARMINATIVE: ANETHOLE; CARVONE
• DIGESTIVE: ANETHOLE
• GASTROSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ANETHOLE
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANISATIN; CARVONE; CARYOPHYLLENE;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
STAR ANISE FOR FUNGUS:
• ANALGESIC: ANISATIN; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; HYDROQUINONE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROLIDOL; PCYMENE; RUTIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIDERMATITIC: RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-3-CARENE; QUERCETIN3-O-GALACTOSIDE; RUTIN
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ANETHOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARVONE; HYDROQUINONE;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; TERPINEN-4-OL
• CANDIDICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; ANETHOLE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CARYOPHYLLENE;
LINALOOL; MYRCENE; P-ANISALDEHYDE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE
• MYCOPLASMISTAT: HYDROQUINONE
I
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER USES (STAR ANISE) — DRIED FRUIT HAS A PLEASANT, AROMATIC, ANISE-LIKE AROMA AND TASTE. DRIED
FRUITS CONTRIBUTE A LICORICE FLAVOR TO CAKES, COOKIES, COFFEE, CURRIES, PICKLES, SWEETMEATS, TEA, AND
CHINESE FIVE-SPICE POWDER. USED WHOLE, NOT GROUND, AS A FLAVORING AGENT IN CONFECTIONS, CANDY,
CHEWING GUM, AND TOBACCO. ORIENTALS CHEW THE SEEDS AFTER MEALS TO PROMOTE DIGESTION AND SWEETEN
THE BREATH. THE DISTILLED OIL IS USED IN CANDY, ICE CREAM, SOFT DRINKS, AND LIQUEURS. OIL IS USED IN
ANIMAL FEEDS, IN SCENTING SOAPS, TOOTHPASTE, CREAMS, DETERGENTS, PERFUMES, ETC., AND TO IMPROVE THE
FLAVOR OF SOME MEDICINES. HIGHEST USE LEVELS ARE CA. 570 PPM IN ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND 680 PPM
IN CANDIES (NUMBERS DERIVED FROM PIMPINELLA). ANISE OIL AND STAR ANISE CANDIES ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN THE U.S., BOTH BEING OFFICIALLY RECOGNIZED AS ANISE OIL. JAPANESE USE THE GROUND BARK
AS INCENSE. A 10–15% AQUEOUS EXTRACT IS USED AS AN AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDE IN CHINA. THE FINEGRAINED WOOD (OVEN-DRIED DENSITY 0.58) CONTAINS 30% PARENCHYMA AND 43% FIBER, AND THOUGH
SUITABLE FOR PULPING IS NOT RECOMMENDED FOR FOREST PLANTATIONS BECAUSE OF ITS SLOW GROWTH (DAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (STAR ANISE) — PROPAGATED BY SEEDS AND BY SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS IN SUMMER. SEEMS TO
DO BETTER IN DAMP BUT WELL-DRAINED ACID TO CIRCUMNEUTRAL SOILS IN SUBTROPICAL CLIMATES, E.G., ZONE 8
(BOWN, 2001). ONLY FRESH SEED WILL GERMINATE, THOSE PLANTED WITHIN 3 DAYS OF HARVEST GERMINATING
READILY. IN CHINA, SEED ARE SOWN IN NURSERY BEDS IN OCTOBER AND NOVEMBER. SEEDLINGS ARE TRANSPLANTED WHEN ONE YEAR OLD (FOURTH LEAF STAGE) TO NURSERY BEDS, SET ABOUT 25 CM APART. PLANTS ARE
ALLOWED TO GROW FOR THREE YEARS AND THEN PLANTED OUT ABOUT 5–7 M APART. PLANTS SHOULD BE WEEDED
TO FACILITATE FRUIT PICKING AND TO REDUCE FIRE HAZARDS. SOIL SHOULD BE PLOWED AND MULCHED IN FALL TO
PROVIDE SUFFICIENT MOISTURE FOR THE DRY SEASON. AT THE BEGINNING OF EACH SUMMER, EACH TREE SHOULD
RECEIVE ABOUT 6.8 KG OF STABLE MANURE AND 45 KG OF AMMONIUM SULFATE. TREES YIELD 6–10 YEARS
FROM PLANTING AND CONTINUE TO BEAR MORE THAN 100 YEARS. CHILDREN USUALLY CLIMB THE TREES AND HANDPICK THE FRUITS. A MATURE TREE, 25 YEARS OLD, MAY YIELD 23–27 KG OF DRIED FRUITS, CONTAINING UP TO
3% EO. ABOUT 100 KG OF FRESH GREEN FRUIT YIELD 25–30 KG OF DRIED FRUIT (CFR).
CHEMISTRY (STAR ANISE) — CONTAINS CA. 5% VOLATILE OIL (CA. 2.5% IN SEED, 10% IN FOLLICLE) WITH
TRANS-ANETHOLE AS ITS MAJOR INGREDIENT. PRESENCE OF SAFROLE DISPUTED. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE
NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN STAR ANISE. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE
USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ANETHOLE — SEE ALSO OSMORHIZA SPP.
ANISATIN — ANALGESIC 0.03 MG/KG; CONVULSANT 3 MG/KG ORL MUS; GABA-ANTAGONIST; NEUROTROPIC
0.03–3 MG/KG ORL MUS; POISON; SEDATIVE 0.03 MG/KG; TOXIC; LD50 = 1.46 MUS.
P-ANISALDEHYDE — ANTIMUTAGENIC; COSMETIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE MLC =
1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; LD50 = 1510 MG/KG ORL RAT.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
TRANS-ANETHOLE — SEE ALSO OSMORHIZA SPP.
J
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
J
JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS L. (CUPRESSACEAE)
JUNIPER
MEDICINAL USES (JUNIPER) — REPORTED TO BE CARMINATIVE, CEPHALIC, DEOBSTRUENT, DEPURATIVE,
DIAPHORETIC, DIGESTIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, AND STIMULANT. BERRIES, WOOD, AND OIL ARE USED IN
FOLK REMEDIES. THE BERRIES ARE SOMETIMES CHEWED TO ALLEVIATE HALITOSIS. THE HERBAL PDR REPORTS
ANTIDIABETIC, ANTIEXUDATIVE, AND HYPOTENSIVE ACTIVITIES IN ANIMALS, ANTIVIRAL EFFECTS IN VITRO. BUT
MPI RECOUNTS LESS THAN MEDIOCRE RESULTS. CHECKING J. COMMUNIS VAR. SAXATILIS, THEY REPORTED ONLY
ABORTIFACIENT EFFECTS, AND NO ANTHELMINTHIC, ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIFERTILITY, ANTIFUNGAL, ANTIVIRAL,
DIURETIC, AND NO CNS, CVS, AND SMOOTH MUSCLE EFFECT (MPI). MORE POSITIVELY, MPI REPORTS THE
BERRIES ACTIVE AGAINST THE PARASITES THAT CAUSE MANGE IN SHEEP. ETHER EXTRACTS OF THE BERRIES
INHIBITED TRICHOPHYTON BOTH IN VITRO AND IN VIVO (MPI). AND IF JUNIPER REALLY DOES PREVENT URIC
ACID BUILD-UP, AND RED WINE IS REALLY BAD FOR GOUT, PERHAPS GOUT SUFFERERS MIGHT TRY JUNIPER TEA
(OR MAYBE EVEN A MARTINI) IN LIEU OF RED WINE! BUT REMEMBER THAT ALCOHOL, ESPECIALLY RED WINE,
IS GENERALLY CONSIDERED BAD FOR GOUT. IN A STUDY OF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF AYURVEDIC HERBS, KHAN
AND BALICK (2001) NOTE STUDIES ON JUNIPER REDUCING LEVELS OF HYPERGLYCEMIA. THEY ALSO CITE
ANTIFERTILITY AND ANTIIMPLANTATION ACTIVITIES.
INDICATIONS (JUNIPER) — ACHE (1; FAD; FNF); AMENORRHEA (F; MAD); ANASARCA (F; DEP); ANOREXIA
(2; BGB; KAB; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1; APA; CAN; CRC; FNF); ASCITES (1; FEL); ASTHMA (F; DEM);
ATHEROSCLEROSIS (F; CRC; PH2); BACKACHE (F; DEM); BITE (F; CRC; MAD); BLENORRHEA (F; CRC); BPH
(1; PED); BRIGHT’S DISEASE (F; DEP); BRONCHOSIS (F; APA; CRC; FAD; KAB); BURN (F; MIC); CALCULUS
(F; CRC); CANCER (1; CRC; FAD; FNF); CANCER, KIDNEY (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LEG (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (1; FNF; JLH); CARDIOPATHY (1; APA; FNF); CATARRH (F;
MAD); CHEST (F; DEM); CHILDBIRTH (F; CEB; DEM); CHLOROSIS (F; MAD); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; CRC);
COLD (F; APA; CEB; FAD); COLIC (F; CAN; CRC); CONDYLOMA (1; FNF); CONGESTION (F; APA);
CONSTIPATION (F; KAB); COUGH (F; DEM; FAD; MAD); CRAMP (1; APA; FNF); CYSTOSIS (1; APA;
J
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CAN; CEB; FAD; FEL); DERMATOSIS (F; CRC; FEL; SUW); DIABETES (1; APA; FNF; MAD; PHR);
DIARRHEA (F; DEM); DROPSY (F; CEB; CRC; FEL; KAB; MAD); DYSENTERY (F; CRC); DYSMENORRHEA
(F; APA; MAD; PH2); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; BGB; KAB; KOM; PH2); DYSPNEA (F; CRC; DEM);
DYSURIA (F; CEB; MIC); EDEMA (1; FNF); ENCEPHALOSIS (F; KAB); ENTEROSIS (F; CEB; CRC; FAD;
KAB); ENURESIS (F; MAD); EPILEPSY (F; CEB); ERUCTATION (F; PHR); FEVER (F; DEM; MAD); FISTULA
(F; MAD); FLU (F; DEM; MIC); FUNGUS (1; KAP; MPI); GALLSTONE (F; MAD); GAS (1; APA; BGB;
CAN; CEB; FAD; MAD); GASTROSIS (F; CRC; MIC); GLEET (F; CRC; FEL; KAP); GONORRHEA (F; CRC;
FEL; KAP); GOUT (1; APA; FNF; PH2); GRAVEL (F; CRC; MAD); HALITOSIS (1; PH2); HEADACHE (F;
CEB); HEART (F; DEM); HEARTBURN (1; APA; DEM; PHR); HEMICRANIA (F; KAB); HEPATOSIS (1; CEB;
FNF; JLH; KAB); HERPES (1; CAN; MAD); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; DEM; FNF; PHR); HIGH
CHOLESTEROL (1; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); HYDROCELE (F; KAB); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1; FNF; JAC7:405);
HYSTERIA (F; CRC); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INDURATION (F; CRC; JLH); INFECTION (1; APA; FNF);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; PH2); JAUNDICE (F; MAD); KIDNEY STONE (F; MAD); LEUKEMIA (1; FNF);
LEUKORRHEA (F; CRC; DEP; FEL; KAP); LUMBAGO (F; CRC); MALARIA (1; ABS; FNF; MAD); MANGE
(1; MPI); MELANOMA (1; FNF); MISCARRIAGE (F; CEB); MYCOSIS (1; KAP; MPI); MYOSIS (F; CAN;
DEM); NEPHROSIS (F; BGB; CRC; FEL; MIC); NEURALGIA (F; APA); NEURASTHENIA (F; APA); NEUROSIS
(F; APA); ODONTOSIS (F; CEB); OPHTHALMIA (F; DEM); OTOSIS (F; KAB); PAIN (1; FNF; JBU; KAB;
PH2); PALSY (F; CEB); POLYP (F; CRC; JLH); PSORIASIS (F; PED); PULMONOSIS (F; CRC; MAD); PYELOSIS
(F; CRC; FEL); RHEUMATISM (1; CAN; CRC; FAD; FNF; KAP; MAD; PH2); RHINOSIS (F; CRC);
SCABIES (F; MAD); SCROFULA (F; CRC); SNAKEBITE (F; CRC); SORE (F; CEB; FAD; MIC); SORE THROAT
(F; CEB; DEM); SPLENOSIS (F; CEB; JLH; KAB); SPRAIN (F; MIC); STONE (2; PHR); SNAKEBITE (F;
FAD); STOMACHACHE (F; APA; DEM; FAD); STRANGURY (F; KAB); SWELLING (F; CRC; KAP; MAD);
TENESMUS (F; CRC); TONSILOSIS (F; DEM); TOOTHACHE (F; CEB; KAB); TUBERCULOSIS (F; CEB; CRC);
TUMOR (1; CRC; FNF); UROGENITOSIS (F; CRC); ULCER (F; CEB; DEM); URETHROSIS (F; CEB); UTI (2;
FAD; FNF; PHR; SKY); UTEROSIS (F; CEB; MAD); VAGINOSIS (F; KAB); VD (F; CRC); VIRUS (1; FNF;
PH2); WART (1; CRC; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF; MAD); WORM (F; APA); WOUND (F; DEM; MIC).
JUNIPER FOR CANCER:
• ANTIEBV: (–)-EPICATECHIN; BILOBETIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; HINOKIFLAVONE
• ANTIHIV: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; HINOKIFLAVONE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIADENOMIC: FARNESOL
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; 3-ALPHA-HYDROXYMANOOL; APIGENIN; CAFFEICACID; FERRUGINOL; FERULIC-ACID; MENTHOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIANGIOGENIC: APIGENIN
• ANTICANCER: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; APIGENIN; AROMADENDRENE; BETA-MYRCENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CEDRENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMICACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; TERPINEOL; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTICARCINOMIC: BETULIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CIS-ACONITIC-ACID; DESOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: APIGENIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOCARCINOGENIC: FUMARIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GLUCURONICACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIHYALURONIDASE: APIGENIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-PINENE; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; BETA-PINENE; BETULIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENEOXIDE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; CIS-COMMUNIC-ACID; CUPARENE; DELTA-3-CARENE;
J
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LUPEOL; MENTHOL; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCIADOPITYSIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTILEUKEMIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; DEOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; FARNESOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: APIGENIN; FARNESOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMETASTATIC: APIGENIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (+)-GALLOCATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; L-ASCORBIC-ACID; LIMONENE;
MYRCENE; N-NONACOSANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; P-COUMARICACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; FUMARIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOQUERCITRIN; LEUCOANTHOCYANIN; LINALYL-ACETATE; LUPEOL; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; AMENTOFLAVONE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENICACID; GALLIC-ACID; LUPEOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: APIGENIN; QUERCETIN; TERPINEOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: (+)-CATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIRETROVIRAL: ISOQUERCETIN
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-HUMULENE; APIGENIN; BETULIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DEOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; FERULIC-ACID;
FUMARIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; LIMONENE; LUPEOL; NEPETIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; BETULIN; BILOBETIN;
BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DEOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; DESOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; HINOKIFLAVONE; ISOQUERCETIN; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LUPEOL;
NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANXIOLYTIC: APIGENIN
• APOPTOTIC: APIGENIN; FARNESOL; GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; APIGENIN; GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: DELTA-CADINENE
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-AMYRIN; APIGENIN; BETULIN; CAFFEIC-ACID;
DEOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; HINOKIFLAVONE; LUPEOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: (+)-CATECHIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DESOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: GLYCOLIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULICACID; GALLIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• INTERFERONOGENIC: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
J
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULICACID; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: DELTA-CADINENE; QUERCETIN
• PKC-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• SUNSCREEN: APIGENIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; DEOXYPODOPHYLLOTOXIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
JUNIPER FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID;
MENTHOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CINNAMIC-ACID; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MENTHOL;
MYRCENE
• ANTIDERMATITIC: APIGENIN; FUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: ALPHA-AMYRIN; AMENTOFLAVONE; BETA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE;
CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; LUPEOL; RUTIN; SCIADOPITYSIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-PINENE; AMENTOFLAVONE; APIGENIN; BETA-PINENE; BETULIN; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; CIS-COMMUNIC-ACID; CUPARENE; DELTA-3-
CARENE; FERULIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; LUPEOL; MENTHOL; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; RUTIN; SCIADOPITYSIN; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: (+)-CATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTIRHEUMATIC: LUPEOL; MENTHOL
• ANTISPASMODIC: APIGENIN; BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE;
CINNAMIC-ACID; FARNESOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MENTHOL;
MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; APIGENIN; QUERCETIN
• COUNTERIRRITANT: CAMPHOR; FORMIC-ACID; MENTHOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; APIGENIN; GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; UMBELLIFERONE
• MYORELAXANT: APIGENIN; BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; GALLIC-ACID; MENTHOL; RUTIN
OTHER USES (JUNIPER) — THE DRIED BERRIES AND THE OIL DISTILLED FROM THEM ARE UTILIZED COMMERCIALLY
TO FLAVOR GIN, LIQUEURS SUCH AS GINEPRO, AND CORDIALS. THE BERRIES ARE ALSO USED IN ALCOHOLIC BITTERS.
BERRIES OF J. COMMUNIS CONTAIN 0.2–3.42% VOLATILE OIL, THE PRINCIPAL FLAVORING AGENT IN GIN. THOSE
WHO PREFER THE TASTE OF GIN (BUT THE PRICE OF VODKA) MIGHT UPGRADE CHEAP VODKA BY STEEPING A BERRY
OR TWO. IN FRANCE, A KIND OF BEER CALLED “GENEVRETTE” IS MADE FROM FERMENTED JUNIPER BERRIES AND
BARLEY (FAC). EXTRACTS AND OILS ARE USED IN MOST FOOD CATEGORIES, INCLUDING ALCOHOLIC AND NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES (COLA, ROOT BEER), BAKED GOODS, BRINES, CANDY, CHEWING GUM, FROZEN DAIRY DESSERTS,
GELATINS, ICE CREAM, MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS, PATES, PUDDINGS, SAUERKRAUT, AND STUFFINGS. HIGHEST
AVERAGE MAXIMUM USE LEVEL REPORTED FOR THE OILS IS 0.006% IN ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND 0.01% FOR
THE EXTRACT IN ALCOHOLIC AND NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. THE OIL IS A FRAGRANCE COMPONENT IN SOAPS,
DETERGENTS, CREAMS, LOTIONS, AND PERFUMES (MAXIMUM USE LEVEL 0.80/C). USED AS A SPICE IN PICKLED
J
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FISH, KRAUT, AND GRAVIES. IN SWEDEN, THEY ARE MADE INTO A CONSERVE. THEY ARE OFTEN USED IN COOKING
TO CUT THE ODOR OF CABBAGE AND TURNIPS (FAC). ONE CAN USE JUNIPER BERRIES TO GIVE BEAN, MEAT, AND
SOUP DISHES A GIN-LIKE FLAVOR. ONE TSP BERRIES = 1
/2 CUP GIN, FROM A FLAVORING POINT OF VIEW (RIN).
AROMATIC BERRIES ARE USED AS A PEPPER SUBSTITUTE. ROASTED BERRIES ARE USED AS A POOR-MAN’S COFFEE.
TEA MADE FROM THE BERRIES HAS A SPICY, GIN-LIKE FLAVOR. WESTPHALIAN HAM IS SMOKED WITH BOTH JUNIPER
TWIGS AND BERRIES. SWEDES MAKE A “WHOLESOME” BEER FROM CEDAR. IN HOT CLIMATES, THE INCISED TREE
YIELDS A GUM OR VARNISH. DEER AND MOOSE GRAZE THE PLANT. SHEEP READILY EAT THE FRUIT. (DAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (JUNIPER) — HARDY TO ZONE 5 (BOWN, 2001 SAYS ZONES 2–8), THIS JUNIPER FARES BEST IN
FULL SUN, IN MOIST, WELL-DRAINED, BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WATERLOGGED SOIL. JUNIPERS CAN WITHSTAND MODERATE DROUGHT. SEEDS, NOT ALWAYS COMING TRUE, NEED TO BE STRATIFIED (ALTERNATING MOIST FREEZING AND
THAWING). HOME GARDENERS MAY JUST CLEAN THEIR SEED AND SOW THEM, WITH FINGERS CROSSED, IN THE
GARDEN TO AWAIT THE SPRING AND ITS ETERNAL HOPE. IF YOU WANT A SHRUB OR TREE LIKE THE PARENT, YOU ARE
BETTER OFF WITH CUTTINGS. CUTTINGS, ESPECIALLY OF NAMED CULTIVARS, ARE TAKEN IN LATE FALL AND OVERWINTERED IN A COLD FRAME OR COOL GREENHOUSE. MANY CULTIVARS OF JUNIPER ARE MALE, AND SOME OF THE
FEMALE CULTIVARS REFUSE TO BEAR CONES (DRY BERRIES), MAKING IT ROUGH ON US CHEAPSCATES WHO WANT
TO CONVERT A CHEAP VODKA INTO A RESPECTABLE GIN.
CHEMISTRY (JUNIPER) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN JUNIPER. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PINENE — SEE ALSO AMOMUM COMPACTUM.
CAMPHOR — SEE ALSO AMOMUM COMPACTUM.
CEDROL — IRRITANT; TERMITICIDE; LD50 = >5000 MG/KG ORL RAT.
JUNENE—DIURETIC.
MENTHOL — ADI = 200 ΜG/KG; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC 2000 PPM; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC50 =
2.0 MM; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 750; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIBRONCHITIC;
ANTIDANDRUFF; ANTIHALITOSIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIITCH; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTIODONTALGIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTIRHEUMATIC; ANTISEPTIC 4 × PHENOL; ANTISINUSITIC; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 =
0.01 MG/ML; ANTIVAGINITIC; ANTIVULVITIC; BRADYCARDIC 65 MG/3 × DAY/WOMAN; BRONCHOMUCOLYTIC;
BRONCHOMUCOTROPIC; BRONCHORRHEIC; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST; CARMINATIVE; CHOLERETIC; CILIOTOXIC;
CNS-DEPRESSANT; CNS-STIMULANT; CONGESTANT; CONVULSANT; COUNTERIRRITANT; DECONGESTANT 11
MG/MAN; DERMATITIGENIC; DIAPHORETIC; ENTERORELAXANT; EXPECTORANT; GASTROSEDATIVE; IRRITANT; MYORELAXANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 1 MG/ML; NEURODEPRESSANT; NEUROPATHOGENIC 40–100 MG/DAY/RAT;
NOCICEPTIVE; RUBEFACIENT; VIBRIOCIDE; LDLO = 2000–>9000 MG/MAN; LD50 = 700–3180 ORL RAT;
LD50 3300 MG/KG ORL RAT.
MYRCENE — SEE ALSO ALPINIA GALANGA.
K
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
K
KAEMPFERIA GALANGA L. (ZINGIBERACEAE)
GALANGA
SEE ALSO LESSER AND GREATER GALANGAL (ALPINIA GALANGA AND A. OFFICINARUM).
MEDICINAL USES (GALANGA) — REPORTED TO BE CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT, PECTORAL, PEDICULICIDE, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC. THE RHIZOME, CALLED “GISOL,” HAS BEEN USED TO TREAT SORE
THROAT. PHILIPINOS USE THE PLANT FOR HEADACHE AND PARTURITION. THEY ALSO MIX THE RHIZOME WITH OILS
AS A CICATRIZANT, APPLYING IT TO BOILS AND FURUNCLES. BOWN (2001) RECOUNTS A MIX OF FOUR GINGER
RELATIVES (ALPINIA, CURCUMA, KAEMPFERIA, AND ZINGIBER) CALLED “AWAS EMPAS,” A JAMU REMEDY FOR
HEADACHE, STIFF JOINTS, AND UTIS.
MANY ZINGIBERACEOUS PLANTS EXHIBIT ANTITUMOR ACTIVITIES, OVER AND BEYOND COX-2-INHIBITORY
AND ANTIMUTAGENIC ACTIVITIES. VIMALA ET AL. (1999) REPORTED SEVEN ZINGIBERACEOUS RHIZOMES WHICH
INHIBITED EBV ACTIVATION (INDUCED BY TPA): CURCUMA DOMESTICA, C. XANTHORRHIZA, KAEMPFERIA
GALANGA, ZINGIBER CASSUMUNAR, Z. OFFICINALE, AND Z. ZERUMBET. LACK OF SERIOUS CYTOTOXICITY LED THE
AUTHORS TO CONCLUDE THAT NATURALLY OCCURRING NON-TOXIC COMPOUNDS INHIBITED THE EBV ACTIVATION.
PITASAWAT ET AL. (1998) SCREENED TEN CARMINATIVE SPECIES AND FOUND LARVICIDAL ACTIVITY AGAINST
CULEX QUINQUEFASCIATUS (EXPOSING EARLY FOURTH INSTAR LARVAE TO ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS). THEY FOUND
SIGNIFICANT LARVICIDAL EFFECTS WITH KAEMPFERIA GALANGA, ILLICIUM VERUM, AND SPILANTHES ACMELLA,
WHICH HAD LC50 VALUES OF 50.54, 54.11, AND 61.43 PPM RESPECTIVELY. CHU ET AL. (1998) FOUND
THAT GALANGAL EXTRACTS WERE AMEBICIDAL FOR THREE SPECIES OF ACANTHAMOEBA. THE EXTRACTS INDUCED
ENCYSTMENT.
INDICATIONS (GALANGA) — AMEBIASIS (1; X9766904); BOIL (F; CRC; DAA); BRUISE (F; DAA); CANCER
(1; JLH; X10389986); CHILDBIRTH (F; CRC; SKJ); CHILL (F; CRC; DAA; WOI); CHOLERA (F; DAA);
COUGH (F; CRC; DAA; KAB); DANDRUFF (F; CRC; WOI); DYSPEPSIA (F; CRC; WOI); EBV (1;
X10389986); ENTEROSIS (F; DAA); FEVER (F; CRC; WOI); FURUNCLE (F; CRC); HEADACHE (F; CRC;
WOI); INFLAMMATION (F; CRC; WOI); LAMENESS (F; DAA); LICE (F; DAA); LUMBAGO (F; DAA);
MALARIA (F; CRC; DAA; WOI); MYOSIS (F; DAA); OPHTHALMIA (F; CRC; WOI); PAIN (F; DAA);
PARASITE (1; X9766904); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC; DAA); RHINOSIS (F; KAB); SCABIES (F; CRC); SORE
K
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THROAT (F; CRC; DAA; WOI); STING (F; WOI); SWELLING (F; CRC; DAA; WOI); TOOTHACHE (F; CRC;
DAA); TUMOR (F; CRC; WOI); VIRUS (1; X10389986).
OTHER USES (GALANGA) — AN ATTRACTIVE SPICE PLANT USED IN VARIOUS CULINARY APPLICATIONS, IT IS CALLED
“KENCUR” IN INDONESIA AND “KRACHAI” (“GRACHAI,” “KACHAI”) IN THAILAND. THE AROMATIC EOS OF THE
ROOTS ARE USED WIDELY IN PERFUMERY, AS A CONDIMENT, AND AS FOLK MEDICINE. IN JAVA, THE RHIZOMES
OF “KENTJOOR,” AS IT IS CALLED, ARE USED IN SEASONING MANY DISHES, ESPECIALLY RICE DISHES. THE RHIZOMES
ARE ALSO PICKLED, OR USED TO MAKE “BERAS,” A SWEET, SPICY BEVERAGE. THEY ARE CHEWED WITH THE
BETELNUTS. A JAVAN BEVERAGE CALLED “BERAS KENTJOOR” IS MADE FROM THE ROOTS (OCHSE, 1931). DRIED
RHIZOMES ARE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR TURMERIC IN CURRY POWDER (FAC). IN JAVA AND ELSEWHERE IN
ASIA, THE GALANAGA IS USED, ALMOST INTERCHANGEABLY, WITH THE GREATER GALANGAL. THE GALANGA IS A BIT
MORE PUNGENT. ONE TSP POWDERED GALANGA IS ROUGHLY EQUAL, CULINARILY, AND PROBABLY MEDICINALLY,
TO A QUARTER-INCH (DIAMETER) SLICE OF THE FRESH RHIZOME OR A ONE-EIGHTH THICK DRIED SLICE (LENGTH NOT
MENTIONED). LEAVES AND RHIZOMES MAY BE USED IN CURRIES, EATEN RAW OR STEAMED, OR COOKED WITH
CHILI (FAC). THE LEAVES OF A NARROW-LEAFED VARIETY ARE ALSO CONSUMED AS FOOD. BUT LEAVES OF ALL
VARIETIES MAY BE USED IN LALABS. ASIANS EMPLOY THE RHIZOMES AND LEAVES AS A PERFUME IN COSMETICS,
HAIR WASHES, AND POWDERS. THEY ARE ALSO USED TO PROTECT THE CLOTHING AGAINST INSECTS. MORE RARELY
IT IS SAID TO BE USED AS AN HALLUCINOGEN.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (GALANGA) — SEEMS TO BE CULTIVATED IN HUMID TROPICAL ASIA (ZONES 9–11), LIKE SEVERAL
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE GINGER FAMILY (BOWN, 2001). PROPAGATED BY DIVIDING PLANTS IN SPRING OR
SOWING RIPE SEED AT CA. 20°C (68°F). PIECES OF THE RHIZOME ARE PLANTED IN FERTILE, MODERATELY DRAINED
SOILS, OFTEN AT 40–60 CM A PART, BOTH WAYS, WITH INTERPLANTS GROWN IN BETWEEN. IN VERY RICH SOILS
THEY MAY BE GROWN AS A SOLITARY CROP, SPACED CLOSER AT 15–25 CM APART. THEY ARE DUG WHEN THE
PLANT LOSES ITS LEAVES DURING THE MONSOON (TO PREVENT ITS DECAY IN THE EXCESSIVELY HUMID SOILS).
CHEMISTRY (GALANGA) — THE EO CONTAINS N-PENTADECANE, ETHYL-P-METHOXYCINNAMATE, ETHYL CINNAMATE, CARENE, CAMPHENE, BORNEOL, AND P-METHOXYSTYRENE. NARCOTIC HALLUCINOGEN. HERE ARE A FEW
OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN GALANGA. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND
THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND
THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BORNEOL — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYTLCHOLINE; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 125–250 ΜG/ML;
ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOTITIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISALMONELLA MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.008 MG/ML; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC
MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; CNS-TOXIC;
FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 470 MM; IC50 = 470 ΜM; INHALANT; INSECTIFUGE;
IRRITANT; MYORELAXANT; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEMATICIDE
MLC = 1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRANQUILIZER; LDLO = 2000 ORL RBT.
CAMPHENE — ANTILITHIC; ANTIOXIDANT; EXPECTORANT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; SPASMOGENIC.
CARENE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; FUNGICIDE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 4800 MG/KG ORL RAT.
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
L
LAURUS NOBILIS L. (LAURACEAE)
BAYLEAF LAUREL, GRECIAN LAUREL, LAUREL, SWEET BAY
MEDICINAL USES (BAYLEAF) — REGARDED AS APERITIF, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EMETIC, EMMENAGOGUE,
NARCOTIC, NERVINE, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC, AND SUDORIFIC. OLEUM LAURI, THE FIXED OIL DERIVED FROM THE
FRUITS (AS OPPOSED TO EO) IS WIDELY EXPRESSED AND USED IN TURKEY. IT IS USED IN MASSAGE FOR
RHEUMATISM AND TO KILL BODY PARASITES. VETS USE THE OLEUM AS AN ANALGESIC AND FLY REPELLENT (SPI).
BAY OIL SOMETIMES USED AS A LINIMENT OR ANALGESIC FOR EARACHE. THIS MAY WELL BE THE OINTMENT OF
UNGUENT DERIVED FROM THE PLANT SAID TO REMEDY SCLEROSIS OF THE SPLEEN AND LIVER AND TUMORS OF THE
UTERUS, SPLEEN, PAROTID, TESTICLES, LIVER, AND STOMACH (JLH). SOUTHERN ANATOLIANS MAKE A YELLOWISH
SOAP FROM THE OLEUM TO TREAT HAIR LOSS AND SKIN AILMENTS (SPI). THE FRUIT, PREPARED IN VARIOUS
MANNERS, IS SAID TO HELP UTERINE FIBROIDS, TUBEROSITIES OF THE FACE, SCIRRHUS AND SCLEROMA OF THE UTERUS,
SCIRRHUS OF THE LIVER, INDURATIONS OF THE JOINTS, SPLEEN, AND LIVER, INTERNAL TUMORS, WENS, AND TUMORS
OF THE EYE. LEAVES AND FRUITS ARE SAID TO POSSESS AROMATIC, STIMULANT, AND NARCOTIC PROPERTIES. IN
SMALL DOSES, LEAVES ARE DIAPHORETIC; IN LARGE DOSES, EMETIC. IN LEBANON, AN EXTRACT FROM THE LEAVES
AND BERRIES, USED AS A CARMINATIVE, IS TIGHTLY CORKED AND STEEPED IN BRANDY IN THE SUN FOR SEVERAL
DAYS. THE RESIDUE, AFTER SUBSEQUENT DISTILLATION, IS USED AS A LINIMENT FOR RHEUMATISM AND SPRAINS,
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE DISTILLATE AS AN EMMENAGOGUE. LEBANESE MOUNTAINEERS ARE SAID TO USE RAW BERRIES TO INDUCE
ABORTION. BERRIES MACERATED IN FLOUR WERE POULTICED ONTO DISLOCATIONS.
AS A NATURAL COX-2 INHIBITOR, PARTHENOLIDE, PROBABLY MORE PREVALENT IN FEVERFEW THAN BAY (THEY
SHOULD BE CAREFULLY COMPARED), MAY ALLEVIATE ARTHRITIS, GOUT, INFLAMMATION, AND RHEUMATISM, AND
POSSIBLY PREVENT CANCER. BOIK (2001) SUGGESTS PARTHENOLIDE, IF NOT FEVERFEW OR BAYLEAF, AS A CANCER
PREVENTIVE. ACCORDING TO BOIK, THREE IN VITRO STUDIES SUGGEST PARTHENOLIDE INHIBITS PROLIFERATION OF
MULTIPLE CANCER LINES, USUALLY AT LEVELS OF 3–9 ΜM. PARTHENOLIDE REDUCED PROLIFERATION OF HUMAN CERVICAL
CANCER CELLS (IC50 = 3 ΜM) AND NASOPHARYNGEAL CANCER CELLS (IC50 = 9.3 ΜM). BOIK (2001) IDENTIFIES
PARTHENOLIDE AS A PTK-INHIBITOR WHICH MAY SECONDARILY HELP AFFECT CAMS, INDUCE APOPTOSIS, INHIBIT
ANGIOGENESIS, INHIBIT AP-1 ACTIVITY, INHIBIT EICOSANOID EFFECTS, INHIBIT HISTAMINIC EFFECTS, INHIBIT NFΚB ACTIVITY, INHIBIT PLATELET AGGREGATION, INHIBITTNF, AND INHIBITVEGF. SO WE HAVE ONE PHYTOCHEMICAL,
ALBEIT AT LOW LEVELS IN THE BIBLICAL LAUREL WITH MORE THAN A DOZEN DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES THAT COULD REDUCE
THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER. BOIK (2001) CALCULATES TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 96 MG/DAY (AS SCALED FROM
ANIMAL ANTITUMOR STUDIES), 57 MG/DAY (CYTOTOXIC DOSE AS DETERMINED FROM PHARMACOKINETIC CALCULATIONS) SUGGESTING A TARGET DOSE OF 77 MG/DAY PARTHENOLIDE. HE SUGGESTS THAT 15-FOLD SYNERGIES WITH
OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS MAY REDUCE THAT MINIMUM ANTITUMOR DOSE CLOSER TO 5 MG PARTHENOLIDE/DAY.
MUCH LOWER DOSES (CA. 0.5–0.6 MG/DAY) ARE USED CLASSICALLY FOR OTHER CONDITIONS.
THE EO HAS BACTERICIDAL AND FUNGICIDAL PROPERTIES, E.G., THE DRIED LEAVES AND ITS EOS INHIBIT
BACILLUS CEREUS, CANDIDA ALBICANS, CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM, ESCHERICHIA COLI, MYCOBACTERIUM SMEGMATIS, PROTEUS VULGARIS, STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS, ETC. (SPI). HAMMER ET AL.
(1999), IN A STUDY OF 52 PLANT OILS AND EXTRACTS FOR ACTIVITY AGAINST ACINETOBACTER BAUMANII,
AEROMONAS VERONII BIOGROUP SOBRIA, CANDIDA ALBICANS, ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI,
KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE, PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA, SALMONELLA ENTERICA SUBSP. ENTERICA SEROTYPE
TYPHIMURIUM, SERRATIA MARCESCENS AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, NOTED THAT LEMONGRASS, OREGANO, AND
BAY INHIBITED ALL ORGANISMS AT CONCENTRATIONS OF ≤2.0%. OTHER ORGANISMS ARRESTED OR KILLED BY
BAYLEAF, ITS OILS OR ITS EXTRACTS: AMONG BACTERIA, BACILLUS SUBTILIS, HAFNEA ALNEI, MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS,
AND SALMONELLA ENTERIDIS, AND AMONG FUNGI, ASPERGILLUS NIGER, A. TERREUS, FUSARIUM MONILIFORME,
PHYTOPHTHORA CAPSICI, RHIZOCTONIA SOLANI, AND SCLEROTINIA SCLEROTIORUM. LEAF EXTRACTS REDUCE AFLATOXIN PRODUCTION BY ASPERGILLUS PARASITICUS AND BOTULITOXIN FROM CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM (HH3).
PEIRCE (1999), IN THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION’S GUIDE TO NATURAL MEDICINES, STATES,
“TEST TUBE STUDIES INDICATE THAT BAY EXTRACTS KILL A NUMBER OF DISEASE-CAUSING BACTERIA, FUNGI, AND
VIRUSES…. SOME COMMERCIAL GERMAN ANTIVIRAL PRODUCTS CONTAIN BAY EXTRACTS.” AND THE BAY MIGHT
REPEL SOME GERM-LADEN COCKROACHES. ACCORDING TO A 1981 STUDY, BAY CONTAINS COCKROACH-REPELLING
COMPOUNDS, INCLUDING CINEOLE (UP TO 50% IN THE VOLATILE OIL) (PEIRCE,1999). RINZLER (1990) ADDS
THAT FLEAS (CARRIERS OF SOME PLAGUES) AND MOTHS ARE ALSO REPELLED.
THERE WAS A CATCHY TITLE ON THE INTERNET, BAYLEAF AND BUBONIC BUZZWORDS (ADMITTEDLY ON MY WEBSITE
(HTTP://WWW.FATHERNATURESFARMACY.COM), HYPOTHESIZING THAT THE PARTHENOLIDE IN BAY MIGHT BE USEFUL
IN DISARMING THE ANTHRAX TOXIN, AT LEAST IN VITRO. PARTHENOLIDE IS SAID TO (1) INHIBIT IL-1 SECRETION, (2)
INHIBIT PHOSPHOLIPASE A2, (3) INHIBIT TNF-A SECRETION, AND (4) INHIBIT TYROSINE KINASE. MORE IMPORTANTLY, IT CAN BE USED IN AN IMMUNE BOOSTING LENTIL SOUP. INGREDIENTS PER PERSON AND DIRECTIONS ARE:
• 1/2 CUP DRY LENTILS (WASH AND STRAIN OFF ANY STONES; SOAK 1 HR)
• 1 HEAPING TSP DRY FENUGREEK SEED (WASH AND STRAIN OFF ANY STONES; SOAK 1 HR) (MAY BE
BITTER; MY SAMPLE SOUP WAS MUCH BETTER THE DAY AFTER, LOSING MOST OF THE BITTERNESS)
• 1/2 CUP CHOPPED ONIONS, CHIVES, LEEKS, RAMPS, SCALLIONS, MIX AND MATCH AS AVAILABLE
• DASH OF CURRY (OR POWDERED TURMERIC), OREGANO, OR BIBLICAL HYSSOP
• 1 WHOLE BAYLEAF
• 1/2 CLOVE GARLIC
• SALT AND PEPPER AND PAPRIKA TO TASTE
• SIMMER 2 HR OR UNTIL TENDER
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WHEN IT COMES TO STRAY ANTHRAX, BUBONIC PLAGUE, CHICKEN POX, FOX POX, AND SMALLPOX, IT MIGHT
HELP, AT LEAST BY COMPLEMENTING THE CIPRO. BUT REMEMBER, THERE HAVE BEEN NO CLINICAL TRIALS
COMPARING CIPRO WITH LENTIL SOUP, OR JUST PLAIN GARLIC OR BAYLEAF. I’D BET MORE ON THE GARLIC OR
BAYLEAF THAN THE LENTIL SOUP, WHICH DILUTES THE GARLIC AND THE BAYLEAF. BUT LENTIL SOUP, IF PLEASING,
CAN BOOST YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM, WHILE PROVIDING HUNDREDS OF GENTLE ANTISEPTIC PHYTOCHEMICALS. I
WON’T NAME ALL THE SIDE EFFECTS OF CIPRO. BUT IT WILL SOON LEAD TO CIPRO-RESISTANT ANTHRAX IF WE ARE
NOT CAREFUL. THAT WON’T HAPPEN WITH THE GARLIC OR THE BAYLEAF.
3,4-DIMETHOXYALLYLBENZENE PRODUCES SEDATION IN MICE AT LOW DOSES; A REVERSIBLE NARCOSIS AT
HIGHER DOSES. IT PREVENTED THE DEATH OF MICE TREATED WITH LETHAL CONVULSANT DOSES OF STRYCHNINE. IT
MAY HAVE RELATIVELY SPECIFIC NERVOUS OR MYONEURAL EFFECTS, PERHAPS SUGGESTING A CLINICAL POTENTIAL.
INDICATIONS (BAYLEAF) — ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); AMENORRHEA (F; CRC; SPI); ANOREXIA (1;
APA; BOW); ARTHROSIS (1; APA; COX; FNF); BACTERIA (1; CRC; FNF; HHB); BRUISE (F; APA);
BUGBITE (F; APA); CANCER (1; CRC; FNF; JLH); CANCER, ANUS (1; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; COX;
FNF); CANCER, EYE (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER, FACE (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER, JOINT (1; CRC; JLH);
CANCER, LIVER (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER, MOUTH (1; JLH); CANCER, PAROTID (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER,
SPLEEN (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER, TESTICLE (1; CRC; JLH); CANCER,
UTERUS (F; CRC; JLH); CANDIDA (1; HH3; SPI); CHEILOSIS (F; HH3); COLIC (F; APA; CRC; SPI);
CONDYLOMA (F; CRC); COUGH (F; CRC); CRAMP (1; FNF); DANDRUFF (F; APA); DEAFNESS (F; JFM);
DEBILITY (F; JFM); DERMATOSIS (F; APA; SPI); DYSPEPSIA (1; APA; FNF; JFM); EARACHE (F; CRC);
ESCHERICHIA (1; X10438227); FIBROID (F; CRC; JLH); FUNGUS (1; CRC; FNF); FURUNCLE (F; HH3);
GAS (1; APA; SPI); GASTROSIS (F; CRC); HEPATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; APA;
FNF); HIV (1; FNF); HYSTERIA (F; CRC; SPI); IMPOSTUME (F; CRC; JLH); INFECTION (1; CRC;
FNF; SPI); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); KLEBSIELLA (1; X10438227); LEUKEMIA (1; FNF); MANGE (F;
JFM); MELANOMA (1; FNF); MIGRAINE (1; FNF; HAD); MYCOSIS (1; CRC; FNF; SPI); ORCHOSIS
(F; JLH); PAIN (1; APA; FNF); PARASITE (1; HHB; SPI); PEDICULOSIS (F; HH3); POLYP (F; CRC);
PROCTOSIS (F; JLH); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC; HH3; PHR; PH2; SPI); SALMONELLA (1; HH3); SCABIES
(F; BOW); SCLEROSIS (F; CRC); SORE (F; APA; HH3; JFM); SPASM (1; CRC; FNF); SPRAIN (F; APA;
CRC; WOI); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; HH3; SPI); STOMATOSIS (F; HH3); TUMOR (1; FNF); ULCER (F;
JFM); UTEROSIS (F; JLH); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WEN (F; CRC); WOUND (1;
APA); YEAST (1; X10438227).
BAYLEAF FOR CANCER:
• ANTIEBV: (–)-EPICATECHIN; BETA-EUDESMOL
• ANTIHIV: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; METHANOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ACETYL-EUGENOL; ARTECANIN; CAFFEIC-ACID;
ELEMICIN; ESTRAGOLE; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; KAEMPFEROL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; THYMOL
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE;
BETA-MYRCENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVONE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CITRAL; ESTRAGOLE; EUGENOL;
EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER; GERANIOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; TERPINEOL
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• ANTIHYALURONIDASE: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE;
BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DELTA-3-CARENE; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; KAEMPFEROL; MANNITOL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SANTAMARIN; SANTAMARINE; THYMOL
• ANTILEUKEMIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ASTRAGALIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: CARVACROL; GERANIOL; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN; THYMOL
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (+)-GALLOCATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN;
BETA-EUDESMOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; COSTUNOLIDE; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE;
MANNITOL; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN; ACETYL-EUGENOL; BOLDINE;
CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; CYANIDIN; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOQUERCITRIN;
KAEMPFEROL; MANNITOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS;
QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; THYMOL
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN; TERPINEOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: (+)-CATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; PARTHENOLIDE
• ANTISTRESS: ELEMICIN
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-EUDESMOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENEOXIDE; COSTUNOLIDE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; P-COUMARICACID; PARTHENOLIDE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SANTAMARIN; SANTAMARINE; TULIPINOLIDE
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN;
THYMOL
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN; SANTAMARIN; TULIPINOLIDE
• DNA-BINDER: ELEMICIN; ESTRAGOLE; EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: (+)-CATECHIN; BETA-EUDESMOL; BOLDINE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL;
PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCITRIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ASTRAGALIN; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMICACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE; QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID; RUTIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
BAYLEAF FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; RETICULINE; THYMOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; THYMOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN; 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHAPINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CITRAL; DELTA-3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; NERAL; NEROL; PCOUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PARTHENOLIDE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RETICULINE;
RUTIN; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINEOL; TERPINYL-ACETATE; THYMOL
• ANTIEDEMIC: BOLDINE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE;
BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
DELTA-3-CARENE; EUGENOL; EUGENYL-ACETATE; KAEMPFEROL; MANNITOL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SANTAMARIN; SANTAMARINE; THYMOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACTINODAPHNINE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARVONE; CITRAL; EUGENOL; FORMIC-ACID; GERANIOL; GUAIJAVERIN; HEXANAL; HEXANOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL;
PARTHENOLIDE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINEOL; THYMOL
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (+)-CATECHIN; CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; PARTHENOLIDE; QUERCETIN;
THYMOL
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CAMPHOR; CAPRYLIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMIC-ACID;
CITRAL; ELEMICIN; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
P-CYMENE; PARTHENOLIDE; PERILLYL-ALCOHOL; PROPIONIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RETICULINE; TERPINEN4-OL; TERPINOLENE; THYMOL
• FUNGISTAT: FORMIC-ACID; LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (+)-CATECHIN; (–)-EPICATECHIN; ASTRAGALIN; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; (–)-EPIGALLOCATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMICACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
OTHER USES (BAYLEAF) — IN BIBLICAL TIMES, THE BAY WAS SYMBOLIC OF WEALTH AND WICKEDNESS. IN
THE ANCIENT OLYMPIC GAMES, THE VICTORIOUS CONTESTANT WAS AWARDED A CHAPLET OF BAY LEAVES, PLACED
ON HIS BROW. THE ROMAN GOLD COIN OF 342 B.C. HAS A LAUREL WREATH MODELED ON ITS SURFACE (BIB).
THE EVERGREEN LEAVES, WHEN BROKEN, EMIT A SWEET SCENT AND FURNISH AN EXTRACT USED BY THE ORIENTALS
IN MAKING PERFUMED OIL. DRIED BAY LEAVES ARE USED TO FLAVOR MEATS, FISH, POULTRY, SHRIMP AND CRAB
BOILS, SOUPS, STEWS, STUFFINGS, TOMATO SAUCES, AND VEGETABLES. THEY ARE ALSO USED AS AN INGREDIENT
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN PICKLING SPICES AND VINEGARS, EVEN TOOTHPASTES (AAR, BIB, FAC, RIN). ONE OR TWO MEDIUMSIZED LEAVES WILL FLAVOR ALMOST ANY FAMILY DISH. RINZLER (1990) SUGGESTS A LEAF OR TWO IN THE WATER
TO BOIL CARROTS, NOODLES, PASTA, OR POTATOES, NOT TO MENTION THE SPAGHETTI SAUCE ITSELF. BAY LEAVES
CAN CREATE A FLAVORFUL BED FOR ROASTED OR STEAMED MEATS AND FISH. FOODS COOKED EN PAPILLOTE ARE
OFTEN SEASONED WITH BAY LEAF, INCLUDED IN THE WRAPPINGS. THE LEAVES ARE INDISPENSABLE IN FRENCH
COOKING AND BASIC BOUQUET GARNI (SOUPS, STEWS, AND STOCKS). COURT BOULLION, FOR POACHING FISH, IS
ALSO FLAVORED WITH BAY LEAF, AS ARE MANY MARINADES. BAY LEAVES ARE SOMEWHAT LESS BITTER AFTER DRYING
THAN WHEN FRESH. LEAVES CAN OBSTRUCT OR EVEN PUNCTURE THE INTESTINE, SO THEY SHOULD BE REMOVED
AFTER COOKING (AAR, RIN). IN CORFU, THE LEAVES ARE WRAPPED AROUND “SIKOPSOMA,” A FLATTENED CAKE
OF DRIED, SPICED FIGS (FAC, SPI). LEAVES ARE USED AS PACKING FOR FIG AND LICORICE, TO DETER WEEVILS
(BOWN, 2001). LEAVES HAVE SERVED AS A TEA SUBSTITUTE. AND A LEAF IN A CANISTER OF FLOUR JUST MIGHT
KEEP OUT THE BUGS. IF BAY LEAVES WILL KEEP MOTHS OUT OF YOUR WOOLENS, MAYBE CARDAMOM (RICHER IN
CINEOLE) WILL DO BETTER. TWIGS MAY BE USED AS SKEWERS FOR KEBABS. BARK WAS USED AS A FLAVORING IN
ANCIENT ROME AND WAS ONE OF THE SPICES ADDED TO “MUSTACEI,” PREDECESSOR OF THE MODERN DAY
MOSTACCIOLI BISCUITS. SPICE COOKIES AND DISHES BASED ON SOFT CHEESES (RICOTTA) CAN BE BRIGHTENED BY
GRATED BAY BARK; ONE-EIGHTH TEASPOON SUFFICES FOR A CUP OF RICOTTA OR A CUP OF COOKIE DOUGH (AAR).
THE BERRIES ARE DISTILLED TO MAKE A LIQUEUR CALLED “FIORAVANTI.” DARK BERRIES ARE EDIBLE (BACCA LAUREUS)
(AAR). DRIED FRUITS AND THE LEAF OIL ARE ALSO USED FOR FLAVORING (FAC). THE EO, DISTILLED FROM THE
LEAVES, IS USED IN PERFUMERY AND FOR FLAVORING FOOD PRODUCTS SUCH AS BAKED GOODS, CONFECTIONARY,
MEATS, SAUSAGES, AND CANNED SOUPS. THE OIL CAN BE MEASURED MORE PRECISELY AND PROVIDES MORE
UNIFORM RESULTS. OIL AND OLEORESIN OF BAY ARE USED AS SOLUBLE PICKLING SPICES, FREQUENTLY IN PRODUCING
CORNED BEEF. THE FAT OLEUM LAURI, FROM THE EDIBLE FRUITS, HAS SERVED IN SOAP MAKING AND VETERINARY
MEDICINE. JUNIPER BERRIES, OR BIG BLACK PEPPERCORNS, CAN BE USED AS SUBSTITUTES FOR BAY LEAVES IN
SOME RECIPES (AAR). THE WOOD, RESEMBLING WALNUT, CAN BE USED FOR CABINETRY. WOOD IS USED AS AN
AROMATIC SMOKE FLAVORING (FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (BAYLEAF) — HARDY FROM ZONE 10–8, MARGINALLY HARDY TO ZONE 7. FARES BEST IN FULL
SUN, AND MOIST BUT WELL-DRAINED, FRIABLE GARDEN LOAM, PH 4.5–8.2 (AVERAGE 6.2). WARM HUMID
SUMMERS ARE BEST (JAD, TAD). AS MANY MEDITERRANEAN PLANTS, IT CAN TOLERATE A SPELL OF DROUGHT.
SWEET BAY IS PROPAGATED BY CUTTINGS FROM HALF-RIPENED SHOOTS, PLACED IN A FRAME IN JULY, FORMING
ROOTS IN A FEW WEEKS; OTHERWISE, THEY MAY REQUIRE 6–9 MONTHS TO ROOT. TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000)
SUGGEST ROOTING THE SUCKERS THAT ARISE AT THE BASE OF THE PLANT OR WITH TOP SHOOTS (SEVERED SMALL
BRANCHES). THEY GOT THEIR BEST RESULTS WITH TIP CUTTINGS OF HALF-HARDENED WOOD SOAKED IN WATER 4–6
WEEKS (CHANGING THE WATER EVERY DAY), THEN MOVED TO THE ROOTING MEDIUM. ALL ROOTED WITHIN 3
WEEKS. PLANTS GROWN IN LARGE TUBS OR IN CONSERVATORIES MAY REQUIRE ONE OR MORE CLIPPINGS PER YEAR,
AN OCCASIONAL WASHING OF THE LEAVES, AND A FEEDING ONCE IN A WHILE TO KEEP THEM HEALTHY. IN AREAS
WHERE THE PLANTS ARE GROWN COMMERCIALLY AND SUITABLE SOILS DO NOT OCCUR NATURALLY, IT IS NECESSARY
TO PLANT EACH TREE IN A LARGE HOLE 75 CM ACROSS BY 60 CM DEEP, FILLED WITH SAND AND COMPOST. PLANT
EASILY PRUNED TO DESIRED SHAPE. LEAVES HARVESTED MANUALLY AND DRIED ON TRAYS IN A MODERATELY WARM
SHELTERED PLACE, OUT OF DIRECT SUN. LEAVES MAY BE FLATTENED UNDER FLAT PLYWOOD TO PREVENT THEIR
CURLING. AFTER TWO WEEKS OR SO DRYING, THE DRY LEAVES ARE CONTAINERIZED FOR SHIPMENT (CFR, TAD).
CHEMISTRY (BAYLEAF) — YOSHIKAWA ET AL. (2000) FOUND SEVEN ALCOHOL-ABSORPTION-INHIBITORS IN THE
LEAVES: COSTUNOLIDE, DEHYDROCOSTUS LACTONE, ZALUZANIN D, REYNOSIN, SANTAMARINE, 3ALPHA-ACETOXYEUDESMA-1,4(15),11(13)-TRIEN-12,6ALPHA-+++OLIDE, AND 3-OXOEUDESMA-1,4,11(13)-TRIEN-12,6ALPHAOLIDE), IDENTIFIED AS THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES FROM THE LEAVES OF LAURUS NOBILIS. THESE SESQUITERPENES
APPEAR TO SELECTIVELY INHIBIT ETHANOL ABSORPTION. ARTEMORIN, COSTUNOLIDE, COSTUSLACTONE, DEACETLYLAURENOBIOLIDE, LAURENOBIOLIDE, REYNOSIN, SANTAMARIN, AND VERLORIN, ARE EIGHT ALPHA-METHYLENEGAMMA-BUTYROLACTONES DOCUMENTED TO BE THE CHIEF CAUSE OF ALLERGY (CONTACT DERMATITIS) IN LAURUS
(TAD). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN BAYLEAF. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
COSTUNOLIDE — ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTITUMOR; CHEMOPREVENTIVE 50–200 MG/KG/DAY; DERMATITIGENIC;
DETOXICANT 50–200 MG/KG/DAY; ETHANOL-ABSORPTION-INHIBITOR; FUNGICIDE EC50 = 6 ΜG/ML; GSTINDUCER 50–200 MG/KG/DAY; NO-INHIBITOR IC50 = 1.2–3.8 ΜM; SCHISTOSOMICIDE; TREMATODICIDE.
LAURIC-ACID — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIVIRAL; CANDIDICIDE; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC; LD50 = 131 IVN MUS.
NERAL — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISPASMODIC.
NEROL — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE ED100 = 300 ΜG/ML; LD50 = 3600
MG/KG ORL RAT.
NERYL-ACETATE — ANTIFLU; ANTIVIRAL.
OLEIC-ACID — SEE ALSO DIPTERYX ODORATA.
PARTHENOLIDE — ALLELOPATHIC; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 50 ΜM; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC =
16–64 ΜG/ML; ANTICARCINOMIC 0.45–1.1 ΜG/ML; ANTIEICOSANOID ΜM; ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC 6–9 ΜM;
ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTILYMPHOMIC 6–9 ΜM; ANTIMIGRAINE 250 ΜG/MAN/DAY; ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL MIC
= 16–64 ΜG/ML; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTIPROLIFERANT 3–9 ΜM; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN; ANTISECRETORY; ANTISEPTIC
MIC = 16–64 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUBERCULAR MIC = 16–64 ΜG/ML; ANTITUMOR 3–9 ΜM;
CANDIDICIDE; COX-2-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.8 ΜM; CYTOTOXIC 2.3 PPM; DERMATITIGENIC; FUNGICIDE;
GRAM(+)-ICIDE; 5-HT-INHIBITOR; HYPERCALCURIC; 5-LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC50 = 20–200 ΜM; NFKB-INHIBITOR; PHOSPHOLIPASE-INHIBITOR; PROSTAGLANDIN-SYNTHETASE-INHIBITOR; PTK-INHIBITOR 10–100
ΜM, IC50 = 20 ΜM.
LINDERA BENZOIN (L.) BLUME (LAURACEAE)
BENJAMIN BUSH, SPICEBUSH, WILD ALLSPICE
SYNONYMS — BENZOIN AESTIVALE (L.) NEES, LAURUS AESTIVALIS L., L. BENZOIN L.
MEDICINAL USES (SPICEBUSH) — CHEROKEE INDIANS USED SPICEBUSH FOR AMENORRHEA, BLOOD DISORDERS,
COLD, COUGH, CROUP, DYSMENORRHEA, DYSPEPSIA, FLU, GAS, HIVES, NAUSEA, PHTHISIS AND SWELLINGS. THEY
ALSO DRANK SPICEBUSH TEA AS A SPRING TONIC AND STEEPED THE BARK WITH WILD CHERRY AND DOGWOOD IN
CORN WHISKEY TO BREAK OUT MEASLES (PROBABLY ALSO GOOD FOR COLD, COUGH, AND MALARIA) (HAD).
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CHEROKEE INHALED THE STEAM TO CLEAR SINUSES AND USED THE TWIG DECOCTION IN BATHS FOR ARTHRITIC PAIN,
SOMETIMES ALSO DRINKING THE TEA (WINSTON, 2001). CREEK INDIANS USED THE TEA FOR PAINS OF RHEUMATISM, FOR PURIFYING THE BLOOD, AND MAKING THEMSELVES SWEAT AND THROW UP, A RITUAL CLEANSING. WISELY,
THEY ADDED WILLOW TO SPICEBUSH TEA FOR DRINKING AND USING IN THE SWEAT LODGES FOR RHEUMATISM. THE
DRUG OF CHOICE TODAY IS STILL USUALLY BASED ON SALICYLATES, WHICH ARE COPIOUS IN MOST WILLOWS.
IROQUOIS USED SPICEBUSH FOR COLDS, FEVERS, GONORRHEA, MEASLES, AND SYPHILIS. MOHEGANS CHEWED THE
LEAVES OR TOOK THE TEA FOR WORMS. OJIBWA TOOK THE TEA FOR ANEMIA AND THAT “TIRED RUNDOWN FEELING.”
RAPPAHANNOCK USED THE TEA FOR MENSTRUAL PAIN OR DELAYED PERIODS. MEDICINALLY, THE BERRIES WERE
USED AS A CARMINATIVE FOR GAS AND COLIC. THE OIL FROM THE FRUITS WAS APPLIED TO BRUISES, AND MUSCLES
OR JOINTS, FOR CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. THE TEA MADE FROM THE TWIGS WAS POPULAR WITH THE SETTLERS (AND
AVAILABLE ALL YEAR) FOR COLDS, COLIC, FEVERS, GAS, AND WORMS. THE BARK TEA WAS USED FOR VARIOUS FEVERS,
INCLUDING TYPHOID, AND TO EXPEL WORMS (FAD). BOILING A CUPFUL CHOPPED BARK IN ONE QUART OF MAPLE
SAP THAT HAS BEEN REDUCED TO ONE QUARTER MAKES A PLEASANT TEA, USEFUL FOR FATIGUE.
THERE’S NOT MUCH FOLKLORE TO ANTICIPATE THAT SPICEBUSH MIGHT BE USEFUL IN YEAST (CANDIDA), BUT
MAYBE THE INDIANS DIDN’T HAVE YEAST. APPARENTLY, THE YEAST IS A NORMAL COMPONENT OF THE FLORA OF
ALL HUMAN BEINGS. MAYBE CANDIDA IS MOSTLY AN IATROGENIC AILMENT, INDUCED BY OUR MEDICINES.
RESPECTED NATUROPATHS MURRAY AND PIZZORNO (1991) SAY THAT, WHEN ANTIBIOTIC USE FIRST BECAME
WIDESPREAD, IT WAS NOTED IMMEDIATELY THAT YEAST INFECTIONS INCREASED. WHITE MAN’S ALCOHOL, ANTIULCER DRUGS, CORTICOSTEROIDS, INCREASE IN DIABETES, ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES, TIGHTS INSTEAD OF COTTON
UNDERGARMENTS, AND TOO MUCH SUGAR IN THE DIET ALL MAY HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE EMERGENCE OF
CANDIDIASIS AS A MAJOR AILMENT, TODAY AFFLICTING HALF OUR WOMENFOLK. THE TOTAL INCIDENCE AND RELATIVE
FREQUENCY OF VAGINAL CANDIDIASIS HAVE INCREASED MORE THAN TWO-FOLD SINCE THE LATE 1960S. STUDYING
54 PLANT SPECIES FOR ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTS, HEISEY AND GORHAM (1992) FOUND THEIR EXTRACT OF
SPICEBUSH BARK STRONGLY INHIBITED YEAST (CANDIDA ALBICANS) MUCH BETTER THAN ANY OF THE OTHER 53
SPECIES. WALNUT HUSKS ALSO SHOWED SOME ACTIVITY. NOW, IF GARLIC VINEGAR WITH SPICEBUSH AND WALNUT
HULLS IS AS SAFE AND EFFECTIVE AS THE COMMERCIAL CANDIDICIDES, IT COULD SAVE A LOT OF LADIES (AND
GENTS) SOME $2000. GARLIC IS REPORTEDLY BETTER THAN NYSTATIN. I SUSPECT THAT MY MIX MIGHT BE AS
SAFE AND EFFICACIOUS AS ANY OF THE ANTIYEAST DRUGS NAMED ABOVE, BUT WHO WILL PAY FOR THE CLINICAL
TRIALS TO PROVE IT?
INDICATIONS (SPICEBUSH) — AGUE (F; FEL); AMENORRHEA (F; FAD); ANEMIA (F; FAD); ARTHROSIS (F;
FAD; JAH2:45); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BRUISE (F; FAD; FEL); COLD (1; DEM; FAD; FNF); COLIC (F;
FAD; FEL); CONGESTION (1; FNF); COUGH (F; FAD); CRAMP (1; FAD; FNF); CROUP (F; FAD);
DERMATOSIS (1; FEL; FNF); DYSENTERY (F; BOW); DYSMENORRHEA (F; FAD); ENTEROSIS (F; BOW);
FATIGUE (F; EB48:333); FEVER (F; FAD; FEL); FLU (1; FNF; JAH2:45); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GAS (F;
FAD; FEL); GONORRHEA (F; DEM); HIVES (F; HAD); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF);
ITCH (F; FEL); MALARIA (F; EB48:333); MEASLES (F; HAD); MYOSIS (F; FAD); NAUSEA (F; JAH2:45);
NERVOUSNESS (F; FEL); NEURALGIA (F; EB48:333); PAIN (1; DEM; FNF); PARASITE (F; BOW); PHTHISIS
(F; HAD); PULMONOSIS (F; EB48:333); RESPIROSIS (F; EB48:333); RHEUMATISM (1; FAD; FEL; FNF);
SINUSOSIS (F; JAH2:45); SPASM (1; FNF); SWELLING (F; HAD); SYPHILIS (F; DEM); TUBERCULOSIS (F;
HAD); TYPHOID (F; FAD; FEL); VD (F; DEM); WORM (F; BOW; DEM; FEL); YEAST (1; ABS; FNF).
SPICEBUSH FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; MYRCENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; DELTA-CADINENE; LIMONENE;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENEOXIDE
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: BORNEOL
• ANTIRHINOVIRAL: BETA-BISABOLENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; LIMONENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE;
CAMPHENE; LIMONENE
SPICEBUSH FOR FUNGUS:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; DELTA-CADINENE; LIMONENE;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; LIMONENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• CANDIDICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
OTHER USES (SPICEBUSH) — AN AROMATIC TEA IS MADE FROM YOUNG LEAVES, TWIGS, AND FRUITS, WHICH
CONTAIN A FRAGRANT EO. THE TWIGS ARE BEST GATHERED WHEN IN FLOWER, AS THE NECTAR ADDS CONSIDERABLY
TO THE FLAVOR (FAC). PIONEERS OF OHIO AND AFRICAN AMERICANS USE YOUNG TWIGS AND LEAVES AS A
SUBSTITUTE FOR SPICE AND TEA. CHEROKEE AND CHIPPEWA INDIANS USED THE PLANT TO MAKE HERB TEAS AND
USED THE LEAVES, AND/OR SEEDS OR TWIGS, TO FLAVOR OR MASK THE FLAVOR OF NATURALLY STRONG MEATS, LIKE
GROUNDHOG AND ’POSSUM (DEM). IROQUOIS AND OJIBWA USED LEAVES AND TWIGS TO BREW TEAS AND SEASON
MEAT (EB48:333). HERBAL VINEGAR MADE FROM THE TWIGS AND FRUITS WAS USED TO PRESERVE BEETS. FRUITS
CAN BE USED AS A SPICE IN BAKING (WINSTON, 2001). DRIED AND POWDERED FRUITS CAN BE USED AS A
SUBSTITUTE FOR ALLSPICE. DRIED LEAVES ARE GREAT IN POTPOURRI (TAD). THE NEW BARK MAKES A PLEASANT
ANTISEPTIC CHEWSTICK, AND CAN BE USED, FRAYED, LIKE A TOOTHBRUSH (FAC, HAD, TAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (SPICEBUSH) — TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) GIVE US SOME CULTURAL DETAIL, RECOMMENDING THIS SPICEBUSH AS AN EXCELLENT BACKGROUND IN SHADED HERB GARDENS. HARDY FROM ZONE
9–4 (BOW), SPICEBUSH GROWS NATURALLY IN SHADY SITUATIONS BUT WILL SURVIVE FULL SUN IF ADEQUATELY
WATERED. IT SEEMS TO FARE BEST IN SUBACID SOILS, RICH IN ORGANIC MATTER, AND CAN BE PROPAGATED BY
DIVISIONS IN SPRING (TAD) AND BY SEED IN FALL (BOW). BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS MOIST ACID SOIL AND
PARTIAL SHADE.
CHEMISTRY (SPICEBUSH) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SPICEBUSH. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE — DERMAL; EMETIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIPHILE; IRRITANT; LAXATIVE.
L
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BORNEOL — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYTLCHOLINE; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 125–250 ΜG/ML;
ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOTITIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISALMONELLA MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.008 MG/ML; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC
MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; CNS-TOXIC; FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 470 MM, IC50 = 470 ΜM; INHALANT; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT;
MYORELAXANT; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEMATICIDE MLC =
1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRANQUILIZER; LDLO = 2000 ORL RBT.
CAMPHENE — ANTILITHIC; ANTIOXIDANT; EXPECTORANT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; SPASMOGENIC.
LAUROTETANINE — CURAROID; CYTOTOXIC.
LIMONENE — ACHE-INHIBITOR; ALLELOCHEMIC; ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC22–26 = 1.2 MM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTILITHIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC
ED50 = 0.197 MG/ML; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (BREAST); ANTITUMOR (PANCREAS); ANTITUMOR (PROSTATE);
ANTIVIRAL; CANDIDISTAT; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; DETOXICANT; ENTEROCONTRACTANT; EXPECTORANT; FUNGISTAT;
FUNGIPHILIC; HERBICIDE IC50 = 45 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE; INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; NEMATICIDE IC = 100 ΜG/ML;
ODC-INHIBITOR ~750 MG/KG (DIET); P450-INDUCER; PHOTOSENSITIZER; SEDATIVE ED = 1–32 MG/KG;
TRANSDERMAL; LD50 = 4600 ORL RAT.
MYRCENE — ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC 10–20 MG/KG IPR MUS, 20–40 MG/KG SCU MUS; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISPASMODIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.14 ΜM.
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
M
MORINGA OLEIFERA LAM. (MORINGACEAE)
BENZOLIVE TREE, DRUMSTICK TREE, HORSERADISH TREE, WEST INDIAN BEN
SYNONYMS — GUILANDINA MORINGA L., MORINGA MORINGA (L.) SMALL, M. PTERYGOSPERMA GAERTN.
MEDICINAL USES (HORSERADISH TREE) — IN RURAL SUDAN, POWDERED SEEDS ARE USED TO PURIFY DRINKING
WATER BY COAGULATION. IN TRIALS, THE POWDER WAS TOXIC TO GUPPIES (POECILIA RETICULATA), PROTOZOA
(TETRAHYMENA PYRIFORMIS), AND BACTERIA (ESCHERICHIA COLI), AND IT INHIBITED ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE. IT
MIGHT SERVE AS A FRUIT- AND VEGETABLE-PRESERVATIVE. IN LOW CONCENTRATIONS, IT PROTECTS MICE AGAINST
STAPHYLOCOCCUS INFECTIONS. JUICE FROM THE LEAVES AND STEM BARK INHIBITS STAPHYLOCCOCCUS AUREUS
BUT NOT ESCHERICHIA COLI. ONE STUDY SHOWED BARK EXTRACTS ACTIVE AGAINST BACILLUS SUBTILIS, DIP.
PNEUMONIAE, ESCHERICHIA COLI, MICROCOCCUS PYOGENES, SALMONELLA TYPHOSA, SHIGELLA DYSENTERI,
STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES, AND VIBRIO COMMA. BARK EXTRACT FUNGICIDAL TO CANDIDA ALBICANS, HELMINTHOSPORIUM SATIVUM, MICROSPORUM GYPSEUM, AND TRICHIPHYTON MENTAGROPHYTES. THE 50% ETHANOLIC EXTRACT OF ROOT BARK (DEVOID OF ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY) WAS ANTIVIRAL TO THE VACCINIA VIRUS BUT NOT
RANIKHET DISEASE VIRUS, BUT IT DID INHIBIT ITS REPLICATION. ETHER LEAF EXTRACTS WERE BACTERIOSTATIC TO
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND S. TYPHOSA. ALCOHOL EXTRACTS MAY CONTAIN AN ADRENERGIC NEURONE BLOCKING
AGENT (MPI).
THE ROOT ALKALOID, SPIROCHIN, PARALYZES THE VAGUS NERVE, HINDERS INFECTION, AND HAS ANTIMYCOTIC
AND ANALGESIC ACTIVITY. IN DOSES OF 15 G, THE ROOT BARK IS ABORTIFACIENT. ALCOHOLIC ROOT BARK EXTRACT
IS ANALGESIC, ANTIEDEMIC, AND ANTIINFLAMMATORY AT 500–1000 MG/KG ORALLY IN ALBINO RATS (MPI).
AQUEOUS AND ETHANOLIC LEAF EXTRACTS ANTIBACTERIAL, HYPOTENSIVE, SEDATIVE, AND RESPIRASTIMULANT.
ROOT-BARK YIELDS TWO ALKALOIDS, MORINGINE AND MORINGININE. MORINGININE ACTS AS A CARDIAC
STIMULANT, PRODUCES RISE OF BLOOD PRESSURE, ACTS ON SYMPATHETIC NERVE ENDINGS AS WELL AS SMOOTH
MUSCLES ALL OVER THE BODY, AND DEPRESSES THE SYMPATHETIC MOTOR FIBERS OF VESSELS IN LARGE DOSES ONLY.
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EXTRACTS OF MORINGA INCREASED GLUTATHIONE-S-TRANSFERASE ACTIVITY >78% IN ESOPHAGUS, LIVER, AND
STOMACH, ENOUGH TO BE CONSIDERED CHEMOPREVENTIVE (ARUNA AND SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, 1990).
INDICATIONS (HORSERADISH TREE) — ABSCESS (F; KAB; PH2); ADENOSIS (F; KAP; NUT); ALOPECIA
(F; NUT; SKJ); AMEBA (1; TRA); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF; KAB; KAP; PH2; SUW); ASCITES (F; HHB;
NUT); ASTHMA (F; IED; KAP); BACTERIA (1; FNF; KAP; MPI; WBB); BILIOUSNESS (F; KAB); BOIL
(F; KAP; NUT); BURN (F; JLH; NUT; TRA); CALCULUS (F; KAB); CANCER (1; FNF; JLH; JAC7:405);
CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; PH2; JAC7:405); CANCER, COLON (1; JLH; JAC7:405); CANCER, ESOPHAGUS (1;
JAC7:405); CANCER, LIVER (1; JLH; JAC7:405); CANCER, NASOPHARYNX (1; KAP; MPI); CANCER, SPLEEN
(F; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; JAC7:405); CARDIOPATHY (F; PH2); CARIES (F; SKJ; SUW); CATARRH (F;
HHB; KAP; NUT); CHOLERA (1; SKJ; WBB); CIRCULOSIS (F; SUW); COLD (F; JFM); COLIC (F; PH2);
CONSTIPATION (F; PH2); CONVULSION (F; NUT); COUGH (F; JFM; KAP); CRAMP (F; SUW); CYSTOSIS (F;
BOW); DANDRUFF (F; PH2); DEBILITY (F; SUW); DERMATOSIS (F; JFM; PH2); DIABETES (F; PH2); DROPSY
(F; IED; KAP; NUT); DYSENTERY (F; NUT); DYSMENORRHEA (F; SKJ); DYSPEPSIA (F; KAP; PH2);
DYSURIA (F; NUT); EARACHE (F; IED); EDEMA (1; JFM; PH2; JAC7:405); ENTEROSIS (F; JLH; PH2);
EPILEPSY (1; ABS; IED; PH2; SUW); ERYSIPELAS (F; NUT); ESCHERICHIA (1; TRA; WOI); ESOPHAGOSIS
(1; JAC7:405); FEVER (F; IED; JFM; PH2; SUW); FRACTURE (F; SKJ); FUNGUS (1; FNF; MPI; WBB);
GAS (F; KAB; SUW); GASTROSIS (F; PH2); GINGIVOSIS (F; KAB); GOUT (F; IED; KAP); GRAVEL (F;
NUT; SKJ); HALLUCINATION (F; KAB); HEADACHE (F; JFM; PH2); HEART (F; KAB); HEMATURIA (F; NUT;
SKJ); HEPATOSIS (F; HHB; JLH; SUW); HICCUP (F; KAB); HOARSENESS (F; KAB); HYSTERIA (F; IED;
KAB; SUW); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF; KAP; WBB); INFERTILITY (F; NUT); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; KAB; KAP; PH2; JAC7:405); LEPROSY (F; KAB); LEUKEMIA (F; KAP; MPI);
LUMBAGO (F; KAB; PH2); MADNESS (F; NUT); MAGGOT (F; NUT); MALARIA (F; JFM; KAP; PH2;
SUW); MYCOSIS (1; HHB; MPI; NUT); MYOSIS (F; KAB); NEPHROSIS (F; JFM); NEURALGIA (F; KAB;
NUT); ODONTOSIS (F; BOW); OLIGOLACTEA (F; BOW); OPHTHALMIA (F; KAB); PAIN (F; JFM; KAP;
SKJ; SUW); PALSY (F; KAB; SUW); PANCREATOSIS (F; WBB); PARALYSIS (F; KAB; PH2; SUW);
PHARYNGOSIS (F; KAB; KAP); PNEUMONIA (F; NUT; SKJ); RHEUMATISM (1; FNF; IED; JFM; KAP;
PH2; SUW); RHINOSIS (1; KAP); SALMONELLA (1; TRA; WOI); SCABIES (F; NUT); SCIRRHUS (F; JLH);
SCROFULA (F; NUT); SEPTICEMIA (F; BOW); SHIGELLA (1; TRA; WOI); SNAKEBITE (F; IED; PH2); SORE
(F; KAB; PH2); SORE THROAT (F; KAB); SPASM (F; IED); SPLENOMEGALY (F; PH2); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH;
HHB; PH2; SUW); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; MPI; WBB; WOI); STOMATOSIS (F; KAB); STONE (F; BOW);
STREPTOCOCCUS (1; WBB); SWELLING (F; JFM; KAP); SYNCOPE (F; KAB; SUW); SYPHILIS (F; NUT);
TETANUS (F; KAB; SUW); TOOTHACHE (F; NUT); TUBERCULOSIS (1; KAP); TUMOR (1; FNF; NUT);
ULCER (F; BOW; IED); VD (F; NUT; SUW); VERTIGO (F; NUT; PH2); VIRUS (1; FNF; KAP; MPI);
WART (F; JFM); WORM (F; JFM; PH2); WOUND (F; IED; PH2); YELLOW FEVER (F; IED; NUT).
HORSERADISH TREE FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTICANCER: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKEMIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; DELTA-5-AVENASTEROL; DELTA-7-AVENASTEROL; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL;
KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTITUMOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
HORSERADISH TREE FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SPIROCHIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; PTERYGOSPERMIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTISEPTIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; OXALIC-ACID; PTERYGOSPERMIN; SPIROCHIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• CANDIDICIDE: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: CAFFEIC-ACID; PTERYGOSPERMIN; QUERCETIN; SPIROCHIN; VANILLIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (HORSERADISH TREE) — DESCRIBED AS “ONE OF THE MOST AMAZING TREES GOD HAS CREATED.”
ALMOST EVERY PART OF THE MORINGA IS SAID TO BE OF VALUE FOR FOOD. THICKENED PUNGENT ROOT USED AS
SUBSTITUTE FOR HORSERADISH. MUSTARD-FLAVORED FOLIAGE EATEN AS GREENS, IN SALADS, IN VEGETABLE CURRIES, AND
FOR SEASONING. LEAVES POUNDED UP AND USED FOR SCRUBBING UTENSILS AND FOR CLEANING WALLS. YOUNG, TENDER
SEEDLINGS MAKE AN EXCELLENT COOKED GREEN VEGETABLE (FAC). FLOWERS ARE SAID TO MAKE A SATISFACTORY
VEGETABLE; INTERESTING, PARTICULARLY IN SUBTROPICAL PLACES LIKE FLORIDA, WHERE IT IS SAID TO BE THE ONLY TREE
SPECIES THAT FLOWERS EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR. FLOWERS GOOD FOR HONEY PRODUCTION. YOUNG PODS COOKED AS
A VEGETABLE, IN SOUPS AND CURRIES, OR MADE INTO PICKLES. IMMATURE SEEDS ARE EATEN LIKE PEAS WHILE MATURE
SEEDS, ROASTED OR FRIED, ARE SAID TO SUGGEST PEANUTS (FAC). SEED IS SAID TO BE EATEN LIKE A PEANUT IN
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MALAYA. SEEDS YIELD 38 TO 40% OF A NONDRYING OIL, KNOWN AS BEN OIL, USED IN ARTS AND FOR LUBRICATING
WATCHES AND OTHER DELICATE MACHINERY. THE OIL CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS, UP TO
75.39% OLEIC, MAKING IT COMPETITIVE WITH OLIVE OIL AND AVOCADO AS A POOR MAN’S SOURCE OF MUFAS.
THE DOMINANT SATURATED ACIDS WERE BEHENIC (TO 6.73%) AND PALMITIC (TO 6.04%). THE OIL ALSO RICH IN
BETA-SITOSTEROL (TO 50.07%), STIGMASTEROL (TO 17.27%), AND CAMPESTEROL (TO 15.13%), AND THE VARIOUS-TOCOPHEROLS TOTALED MORE THAN 220 MG/KG OF OIL, RESPECTIVELY (JAF47:4495). HAITIANS OBTAIN THE
OIL BY CRUSHING BROWNED SEEDS AND BOILING IN WATER. OIL IS CLEAR, SWEET AND ODORLESS, SAID NEVER TO
BECOME RANCID. IT IS EDIBLE, USED IN SALADS AND COOKING, AND IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PERFUMES AND HAIR
DRESSINGS. LEAVES AND YOUNG BRANCHES ARE RELISHED BY LIVESTOCK. A REDDISH GUM PRODUCED BY THE BARK,
CALLED BEN GUM, IS USED AS A SEASONING (FAC). WOOD YIELDS A BLUE DYE. COMMONLY PLANTED IN AFRICA
AS A LIVING FENCE (HAUSA) TREE. TREES PLANTED ON GRAVES ARE BELIEVED TO KEEP AWAY HYENAS AND ITS BRANCHES
ARE USED AS CHARMS AGAINST WITCHCRAFT. OCHSE NOTES AN INTERESTING AGROFORESTRY APPLICATION: THE THIN
CROWN THROWS A SLIGHT SHADE ON KITCHEN GARDENS, WHICH IS “MORE USEFUL THAN DETRIMENTAL TO THE PLANTS.”
IN TAIWAN, TREELETS ARE SPACED 15 CM APART TO MAKE A LIVING FENCE, THE TOP OF WHICH IS LOPPED OFF FOR
THE CALCIUM- AND IRON-RICH FOLIAGE. BARK CAN SERVE FOR TANNING AND ALSO YIELDS A COARSE FIBER. TREES ARE
BEING STUDIED AS PULPWOOD SOURCES IN INDIA. ANALYSES INDICATE THAT THE TREE IS A SUITABLE RAW MATERIAL
FOR PRODUCING HIGH ALPHA-CELLULOSE PULPS FOR USE IN CELLOPHANE AND TEXTILES (NUT).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (HORSERADISH TREE) — IN INDIA, THE PLANT IS PROPAGATED BY PLANTING LIMB CUTTINGS 1–2
M LONG, FROM JUNE THROUGH AUGUST, PREFERABLY. THE PLANT STARTS BEARING PODS 6–8 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING,
BUT REGULAR BEARING COMMENCES AFTER THE SECOND YEAR. THE TREE BEARS FOR SEVERAL YEARS. FRUITS ARE
HARVESTED AS NEEDED, OR, PERHAPS IN INDIA, THERE MAY BE TWO PEAK PERIODS (MARCH–APRIL AND SEPTEMBER–OCTOBER). A SINGLE TREE MAY YIELD SOME 600–1000 PODS A YEAR. A SINGLE FRUIT MAY HAVE 20 SEEDS,
EACH WEIGHING SOME 300 MG, SUGGESTING A YIELD OF 6 KG/TREE AND AN OIL YIELD OF 2 KG/TREE (NUT).
CHEMISTRY (HORSERADISH TREE) — WITH THE RECENT FLURRY OF INTEREST IN “STANOLS,” THE HEALTH FOOD INDUSTRY
MIGHT BE INTERESTED IN A CLOSER LOOK AT BEN OIL, WHICH HAS MORE STANOLS THAN OLIVE OIL. SEE TABLE BELOW.
BEN OIL, AS ANALYZED, IS ALSO WELL ENDOWED WITH TOCOPHEROLS, MAKING IT A DOUBLE WHAMMY FOR HEART
HEALTH, WITH A SLIGHT TASTE OF HORSERADISH. IT’S OLEIC-ACID (MUFA) LEVELS CAN BE AS HIGH AS 75.39%. THE
BEN OIL CONTAINED CA. 100 PPM ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL (CF 90 IN OLIVE OIL); 35 PPM GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL (CF 10
IN OLIVE OIL); 75 PPM DELTA-TOCOPHEROL (CF 2 IN OLIVE OIL). THESE HIGH LEVELS OF TOCOPHEROLS, ESPECIALLY
DELTA-TOCOPHEROL, THE BETTER ANTIOXIDANT, OFFER SOME PROTECTION IN PROCESSING AND STORAGE.
BEN OIL ANALYZED
STEROL % OF STEROLS OLIVE OIL
DELTA-5-AVENASTEROL (8.84–12.79%) 16.77
DELTA-7-AVENASTEROL (0.94–1.11%) 0.29
BRASSICASTEROL (ND-0.06%) TR
CAMPESTANOL (ND-0.35%) 0.29
CAMPESTEROL (14.03–15.13%) 3.20
CHOLESTEROL (0.12–0.13%) 0.15
CLEROSTEROL (0.84–22.52%) 0.54
ERGOSTADIENOL (ND-0.39%) ND
28-ISOAVENASTEROL (1.01–1.40%) ND
24-METHYLENECHOLESTEROL (0.85–0.98%) ND
BETA-SITOSTEROL (49.19–50.07%) 64.3
STIGMASTANOL (0.80–1.05%) 0.40
DELTA-7,14-STIGMASTANOL (0.44–0.52%) TR
STIGMASTEROL (16.78–17.27%) 0.60
SOURCE: JAF47:4495
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN HORSERADISH TREE. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING
OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND
DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL — ANTICANCER; ANTICONVULSANT SYNERGEN; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT (5 × QUERCETIN); ANTIRADICULAR (5 × QUERCETIN); ANTITUMOR; RDA = 3–12 MG/DAY.
GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL — ANTIOXIDANT 10–15 ΜG/G.
LEUCINE — ANTIENCEPHALOPATHIC.
LYSINE — ANTIALKALOTIC; ANTIHERPETIC 0.5–3 G/DAY; ESSENTIAL; HYPOARGINANEMIC 250 MG/KG; LD50
= 181 IVN MUS.
MORINGININE — CARDIOTONIC; ENTERODEPRESSANT; HYPERTENSIVE; MYODEPREESSANT; SYMPATHOMIMETIC;
VASOCONSTRICTOR.
OLEIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANEMIAGENIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 =
21 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 = 21 ΜM; CHOLERETIC 5 ML/MAN; DERMATITIGENIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; PERCUTANEOSTIMULANT; LD50 = 230 IVN MUS; LDLO = 50 IVN CAT.
SPIROCHINE — ANALGESIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEPTIC; CARDIODEPRESSANT 350 MG/KG; CARDIOTONIC 35
MG/KG; CNS-PARALYTIC; FUNGICIDE; HYPOTENSIVE; MYOCARDIOTONIC; UTEROTONIC.
MURRAYA KOENIGII (L.) SPRENG. (RUTACEAE)
CURRY LEAF
SYNONYMS — BERGERA KOENIGII L., CHALCAS KOENIGII (L.) KURZ.
MEDICINAL USES (CURRY LEAF) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, CARMINATIVE, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC
(DAW). MEDICINALLY, LEAVES, ROOTS, AND BARK ARE CONSIDERED CARMINATIVE, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC,
ESPECIALLY IN INDIA. LEAVES USED INTERNALLY IN DYSENTERY AND DIARRHEA AND FOR CHECKING VOMITING;
USED EXTERNALLY, IT IS APPLIED TO BRUISES AND SKIN ERUPTIONS (WOI). JUICE OF ROOT TAKEN TO RELIEVE
PAIN ASSOCIATED WITH KIDNEY AILMENTS (KAB). POWDERED ROOT MIXED WITH BETEL NUT JUICE AND HONEY
AS AN ANTIPERIODIC (DEP).
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EXTRACTS ANTISPASMODIC AND PROTISTICIDAL (MPI). THE 50% ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS SHOWED ANTIPROTOZOAL ACTIVITY AGAINST ENTAMEBA HISTOLYTIC AND ANTISPASMODIC ACTIVITY ON GUINEA PIG ILEUM (NO
ANTICANCER, ANTIVIRAL, OR CNS EFFECTS, NOR HYPOLIPEMIC ACTIVITY IN SOME INDIAN ASSAYS). AQUEOUS
EXTRACTS (= TEA) OF LEAVES HYPOGLYCEMIC IN NORMAL AND ALLOXAN DIABETIC DOGS (MPI). AQUEOUS
EXTRACTS INHIBIT ETHANOL-INDUCED STOMACH ULCERS (TAD). LEAF EO ANTIBACTERIAL AGAINST B. SUBTILIS
(AT 2000 PPM), C. PYOGENES (AT 2000 PPM), P. VULGARIS, PASTEURELLA MULTICIDA, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS (AT 2000 PPM) (MPI). LEAF EO FUNGICIDAL AGAINST ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATIS, A. NIGER, CANDIDA
ALBICANS (AT 2000 PPM), C. TROPICALIS, AND MICROSPORUM GYPSEUM (MPI). ETHANOLIC LEAF EXTRACT
ACTIVE AGAINST COLLETOTRICHUM FALCATUM AND RHIZOCTONIA SOLANI (MPI). SOME OF THE CARBAZOLE
ALKALOIDS WERE FUNGICIDAL AGAINST MICROSPORUM AND TRICHOPHYTON. AT 10 ΜG/ML, GIRINIMBINE
INHIBITED THEIR GROWTH.
TACHIBANA ET AL. (2001), COMPARING FIVE ANTIOXIDANT CARBAZOLE ALKALOIDS, FOUND THREE WERE BETTER
ANTIOXIDANTS THAN TOCOPHEROL, TWO LESS SO. EUCHRESTINE, BISMURRAYAFOLINE, MAHANINE, MAHANIMBICINE,
AND MAHANIMBINE ALL SHOWED RADICAL SCAVENGING ACTIVITY (JAF49:5594). SIMILARLY, RAMSEWAK ET AL.
(1999) ISOLATED THREE BIOACTIVE CARBAZOLE ALKALOIDS, MAHANIMBINE, MURRAYANOL, AND MAHANINE, ALL
OF WHICH WERE ANTISEPTIC, INSECTICIDAL, AND INHIBITED TOPOISOMERASE I AND II INHIBITION ACTIVITIES.
ADEBAJO AND REISCH (2000) REPORTED SEVERAL MINOR FUROCOUMARINS, POSSIBLY ADDITIVE OR SYNERGISTIC,
IN THE SEEDS: BYAKANGELICOL, BYAKANGELICIN, GOSFEROL, ISOBYAKANGELICOL, ISOGOSFEROL, NEOBYAKANGELICOL, PHELLOPTERIN, AND XANTHOTOXIN. IT SEEMS TO ME THE RULE, RATHER THAN THE EXCEPTION, THAT BIOLOGICALLY
ACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF A TYPE (LIKE AN ALKALOID, FLAVONOID, FURANOCOUMARIN, LIGNAN, MONTERPENE, AN
OPC, PHYTOSTANOL, PHYTOSTEROL, POLYPHENOL, SAPONIN, TANNIN, OR A TRITERPENOID), DON’T USUALLY OCCUR
ALONE IN THEIR CLASS, BUT IN A SUITE OF CLOSELY RELATED, OFTEN SYNERGISTIC COMPOUNDS IN THAT CLASS. NOT
ONLY IS THAT ADDITIVITY OR SYNERGY LOST WHEN WE SEEK OUT THE SINGLE MOST ACTIVE COMPOUND, WE ENABLE
THE ENEMY TO DEVELOP RESISTANCE. RESISTANCE IS A RESPONSE TO THE MONOCHEMICAL SILVER BULLET, NOT
THE POLYCHEMICAL HERBAL SHOTGUN.
INDICATIONS (CURRY LEAF) — AMEBA (1; MPI); BACTERIA (1; FNF; MPI; TAD); BILIOUSNESS (F; DEP);
BITE (F; DEP); BLOOD (F; KAB); BRUISE (F; WOI); CANCER (1; FNF; X9366097); COLIC (F; BOW);
CONSTIPATION (F; BOW); CRAMP (1; FNF; MPI); DERMATOSIS (F; DEP; WOI); DIABETES (1; MPI);
DIARRHEA (F; SKJ); DYSENTERY (F; DEP; SKJ); FEVER (F; KAB); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GASTROSIS (1; TAD);
HEMORRHOID (F; KAB); INFECTION (1; FNF; TAD); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; KAB); ITCH (F; KAB);
LEUKEMIA (1; ABS); LEUKODERMA (F; KAB); MALARIA (F; DEP); MELANOMA (1; FNF; X9366097);
NAUSEA (F; SKJ); NEPHROSIS (F; SKJ); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); PAIN (F; SKJ); SNAKEBITE (F; KAB);
STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; MPI); THIRST (F; KAB); TUMOR (1; FNF); ULCER (1; FNF; TAD); VIRUS (1; FNF);
VOMITING (F; DEP); WORM (F; KAB).
CURRY LEAF FOR CRAMP:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; CARVACROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTICONVULSANT: BERGAPTEN; GABA; LINALOOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BERGAPTEN; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE;
ISOPIMPINELLIN
• ANTISPASMODIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BERGAPTEN; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• CARMINATIVE: CARVACROL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL
• MYORELAXANT: BORNYL-ACETATE
• SEDATIVE: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARYOPHYLLENE;
DIPENTENE; GABA; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE; GABA
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CURRY LEAF FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; CARVACROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARVACROL;
CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE; DIPENTENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROLIDOL; PCYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BERGAPTEN; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; ISOPIMPINELLIN
• ANTISEPTIC: 2-NONANONE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AROMADENDRENE; BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-PINENE;
CARVACROL; HEXANOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; OXALIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; DIPENTENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL
• FUNGICIDE: ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; ISOPIMPINELLIN; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; OXYPEUCEDANIN; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: BENZALDEHYDE
OTHER USES (CURRY LEAF) — THE PUNGENTLY AROMATIC CURRY LEAVES, DRIED OR FRESH, MAY BE FOUND
IN INDIAN GROCERY SHOPS. MUCH CULTIVATED IN INDIA FOR ITS AROMATIC LEAVES AND USED AS A SPICE IN
CURRIES, CHUTNEYS, AND STEWS (CFR). TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000), ADVISE THAT, THOUGH NOT GRAS,
THE HERB HARMONIZES WELL WITH CURRY MIXTURES FOR BUTTERMILKS, CHUTNEYS, FISH DISHES, MEAT DISHES,
PICKLES, SCRAMBLED EGGS, SOUPS (RASAMS), ETC. LEAVES RETAIN THEIR PUNGENT FLAVOR EVEN AFTER DRYING.
CURRY LEAVES, WITH STEMS REMOVED, CAN BE SAUTÉED LIGHTLY IN OIL. THIS METHOD SHOULD BE CHOSEN
WHEN MAKING A DRY CURRY AND ALSO FOR THE SAVORY SPICED-RICE DISHES OF SOUTH INDIA (AAR). LEAVES
ARE FRIED IN GHEE OR OIL UNTIL CRISP (FAC). IT WAS FOUND THAT FRESH CURRY LEAVES (1%) PREVENTED
OXIDATION OF GHEE BETTER THAN THE COMMERCIAL ANTIOXIDANTS BHA AND BHT. LEAVES ARE AN INGREDIENT
OF THE TAMIL NADU SPICE BLEND CALLED CURRY POWDER. AFTER BEING POWDERED IN A GRINDER OR BLENDER,
THE DRIED LEAVES CAN ALSO BE USED IN MARINADES OR SPRINKLED ON VEGETABLES OR YOGURT. THEY ARE USED
ALMOST LIKE BAY LEAVES, A COUPLE OF SPRIGS WITH A TOTAL OF SIX TO TEN LEAFLETS ARE NEEDED FOR A DISH
SERVING FOUR. REMOVE SPRIGS BEFORE SERVING. CURRY LEAVES ARE SOMETIMES CALLED “SWEET NEEM”
(AAR). FRUIT IS EDIBLE AND YIELDS 0.76% OF A YELLOW VOLATILE OIL WITH A NEROLI-LIKE ODOR AND A
PEPPER-LIKE TASTE, GIVING AN AGREEABLE SENSATION OF COOLNESS ON THE TONGUE (REED, 1976). WOOD (WT.
43–50 LB/CU FT) IS GRAYISH-WHITE, EVEN AND CLOSE-GRAINED, DURABLE, USED FOR AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
PLANTS OFTEN GROWN AS AN ORNAMENTAL (CFR).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (CURRY LEAF) — PROPAGATION BY SEEDS, WHICH GERMINATE FREELY UNDER PARTIAL SHADE. WHEN
CULTIVATED, SEEDLINGS ARE SPACED 3–7 M EACH WAY. SEMIRIPE CUTTINGS POSSIBLE IN LATE SUMMER (BOWN,
2001). MOIST, RICH, SUNNY, OR PARTIALLY SHADED SITES RECOMMENDED (BOWN, 2001). HARDY ONLY IN ZONES
9 AND 10, PLANTS TOLERATE FULL SUN AND EVENLY MOIST GARDEN LOAMS (TAD). PLANTS ARE OUTPLANTED IN MAY
IN INDIA. PLANTS MAY ALSO BE PROPAGATED BY CUTTINGS OF RIPENED WOOD, WHICH SHOULD BE TAKEN WITH
LEAVES INTACT OR BY ROOT SUCKERS. THESE ARE INSERTED IN MOIST SAND IN A SHADY SITE. ROOTED CUTTINGS ARE
SPACED AS SEEDLINGS. ONCE ESTABLISHED, SHRUBS REQUIRE LITTLE ATTENTION. NATIVE PLANTS OFTEN FORM UNDERGROWTH IN FOREST (CFR). HARVESTED AS NEEDED, LEAVES RARELY ENTER INTO COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.
CHEMISTRY (CURRY LEAF) — LEAVES CONTAIN 6.1% PROTEIN; 16% CARBOHYDRATE, CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS,
AND IRON; AND THE VITAMINS A AND C AND NICOTINIC ACID, BUT LACK THIAMINE AND RIBOFLAVIN. LEAVES
ARE FAIR SOURCE OF VITAMIN A AND A RICH SOURCE OF CALCIUM, BUT THE HIGH TOTAL OXALATE CONTENT IS A
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HINDRANCE. THE MOST IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF LEAF EO ARE BETA-CARYOPHYLLENE, BETA-GURJUNENE,
BETA-ELEMENE, BETA-PHELLANDRENE, AND BETA-THUJENE. IT PRODUCES NEARLY 2000 TIMES AS MANY AROMA
VOLATILES AS DOES PANDANUS LATIFOLIUS. PRAKASH AND NATARAJAN (1976) TABULATE THE COMPOSITION OF
YOUNG, MEDIUM, AND OLDER LEAVES:
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CURRYLEAF. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE — DERMAL; EMETIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIPHILE; IRRITANT; LAXATIVE.
BETA-ELEMENE — ANTITUMOR (CERVIX).
BETA-PHELLANDRENE — EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE.
MAHANIMBINE — ANTIOXIDANT 33 ΜG/ML; ANTISEPTIC; INSECTICIDE; MOSQUITOCIDE; TOPOISOMERASE-IINHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR.
MAHANINE — ANTIOXIDANT (>TOCOPHEROL); ANTISEPTIC; INSECTICIDE; MOSQUITOCIDE; TOPOISOMERASE-IINHIBITOR; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR.
MYRISTICA FRAGRANS HOUTT. (MYRISTICACEAE)
MACE, NUTMEG
SYNONYM — MYRISTICA OFFICINALIS L.
MEDICINAL USES (NUTMEG) — CONSIDERED APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, CARMINATIVE, NARCOTIC, AND
STIMULANT. MACE HAS BEEN USED FOR PUTRID AND INTERMITTENT FEVERS AND MILD INDIGESTION. THE
TENDER MEDIUM MATURE
MOISTURE 70.1% 65.1% 63.2%
TOTAL NITROGEN 0.87% 1.03% 1.15%
CRUDE PROTEIN (NX6.25) 5.48% 6.43% 6.92%
FAT 3.30% 4.74% 6.15%
TOTAL SUGARS 14.86% 17.95% 18.92%
STARCH 11.4% 14.2% 14.6%
CRUDE FIBRE 5.8% 6.2% 6.8%
ASH 12.54% 12.68% 13.06%
VOLATILE OIL 0.82% 0.55% 0.48%
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EXPRESSED OIL OF NUTMEG IS USED EXTERNALLY AS A STIMULANT. THEY ARE USED TO ALLAY BOTH GAS AND
NAUSEA. MIXED WITH LARD, GRATED NUTMEG IS APPLIED TO PILES. ROASTED NUTMEG IS USED INTERNALLY
FOR LEUCORRHEA. THE EO IS RECOMMENDED FOR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER AND URINARY TRACT. CHINESE
USE POWDERED SEEDS FOR PEDIATRIC AND GERIATRIC FLUXES, FOR CARDOSIS, COLD, CRAMPS, AND CHRONIC
RHEUMATISM. INDONESIANS BOIL THE POWDERED SEED FOR ANOREXIA, COLIC, DIARRHEA, DYSPEPSIA, DYSENTERY, AND MALARIA. SEED OIL IS RUBBED ON THE TEMPLES FOR HEADACHE OR DROPPED IN TEA FOR DYSPEPSIA
AND NAUSEA. INDONESIANS USE THE LEAF TEA FOR GAS. MALAYANS USE THE NUTMEG FOR MADNESS, MALARIA,
PUERPERIUM, RHEUMATISM, AND SCIATICA. ARABIANS, AS EARLY AS THE SEVENTH CENTURY B.P., RECOMMENDED NUTMEG FOR DIGESTIVE DISORDERS, KIDNEY TROUBLES, LYMPHATIC AILMENTS, ETC. EVEN EARLIER,
INDIANS USED IT FOR ASTHMA, FEVER, HEART DISEASE, AND TUBERCULOSIS. IN INDIA, NUTMEG IS PRESCRIBED
FOR DYSENTERY, GAS, MALARIA, LEPROSY, RHEUMATISM, SCIATICA, AND STOMACHACHE. ARABS STILL USE
NUTMEG AS AN APHRODISIAC IN LOVE POTIONS. NUTMEG BUTTER IS USED IN MASSAGE FOR ARTHRITIS, PARALYSIS,
RHEUMATISM, SCIATICA, AND SPRAINS. IT IS ALSO USED AS AN EXTERNAL STIMULANT IN HAIR LOTIONS, OINTMENTS,
AND PLASTER (MPI). YEMENITES RECOMMEND ITS USE FOR THE LIVER AND SPLEEN, FOR COLDS, FEVERS, AND
RESPIRATORY AILMENTS.
NUTMEG MAY ALLEVIATE SOME SYMPTOMS OF CERTAIN TYPES OF CANCER, SUGGESTED IN A CASE STUDY
PRESENTED IN THE NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE. DR. IRA SHAFRAN AND DANIEL MACRONE OF OHIO
STATE UNIVERSITY SAY, “FURTHER STUDY MAY SUBSTANTIATE THE SPECULATION THAT INHIBITION OF PROSTAGLANDIN
E2 BY NUTMEG AFFORDS SYMPTOMATIC IMPROVEMENT OF HYPERCALCEMIA IN MEDULLARY CARCINOMA OF THE
THYROID AND OTHER PROSTAGLANDIN-SECRETING NEOPLASMS.” THEY PRESCRIBED 4 TO 6 TBSP OF NUTMEG PER
DAY TO THEIR PATIENT, BECAUSE NUTMEG IS KNOWN TO IMPROVE DIARRHEA ASSOCIATED WITH MEDULLARY
CARCINOMA OF THE THYROID. THE PATIENT ALSO SUFFERED FROM HYPERCALCEMIA THAT DID NOT RESPOND TO
STANDARD CALCIUM-REDUCING TREATMENT. AFTER 12 DAYS OF NUTMEG THERAPY, THE CALCIUM LEVELS WERE
REDUCED BY ALMOST ONE-THIRD. THE MEDICAL TEAM SAYS THAT MEDULLARY CARCINOMA OF THE THYROID IS
KNOWN TO PRODUCE “COPIOUS AMOUNTS OF PROSTAGLANDIN E2… (AND) INHIBITION OF PROSTAGLANDIN E2
MAY BE NUTMEG’S ANTIDIARRHEAL MECHANISM OF ACTION” (DAD). MACE, AT 10 MG PER MOUSE, SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED CARCINOMA OF THE UTERINE CERVIX. AT 1% OF DIET, MACE SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASES SKIN
PAPILLOMAS IN MICE. AT 1–2% LEVELS, FOR 10 DAYS, MACE SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED GLUTATHIONE-STRANSFERASE ACTIVITIES (JAC7:405).
KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN STUDIES ON MYRISTICA FOR BLADDER AND KIDNEY STONES. IN
RABBITS, ETHANOLIC FRUITS EXTRACTS AT 500 MG/KG/DAY ORALLY FOR 60 DAYS, LOWERED LDL AND TOTAL
CHOLESTEROL AND TRIGLYCERIDES (JE55:49). NUTMEG PROVED ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA
COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES,
DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS (DE ET AL., 1999).
FOUR OR FIVE GRAMS OF MYRISTICIN, A NARCOTIC, PRODUCE TOXIC SYMPTOMS IN MAN. MANY WOMEN,
IN HOPES OF INDUCING ABORTION, HAVE FAILED YET SUFFERED THE INTOXICATION DUE TO MYRISTICIN. INGESTION
OF 1–2 OZ GROUND NUTMEG PRODUCES A PROLONGED DELIRIUM, DISORIENTATION, AND DRUNKENNESS. “STIRRED
INTO A GLASS OF COLD WATER, A PENNY MATCHBOX FULL OF NUTMEG HAD THE KICK OF THREE OR FOUR REEFERS,”
MALCOLM X, AS QUOTED BY SCHLEIFFER. NUTMEG TAKEN AS A PSYCHOTROPIC OFTEN CAUSES REACTIONS SIMILAR
TO THOSE OF OTHER HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS, QUITE UNLIKE THE CLASSIC ACCOUNT OF MYRISTICA POISONING.
MYRISTICIN ALONE DOES NOT GIVE THE REACTION, BUT EATING THE WHOLE SEED DOES. RINZLER (1990) SAYS
BOLDLY IN BOLD PRINT, “…HIGH DOSES, DEFINED AS ONE TO THREE WHOLE SEEDS OR 5 TO 15 G (0.5 OZ) GRATED
NUTMEG, CAN CAUSE EUPHORIA, A SENSATION OF FLOATING, FLUSHED SKIN, VOMITING, CIRCULATORY COLLAPSE,
AND VISUAL OR AUDITORY HALLUCINATIONS, WITHIN ONE TO SIX HOURS AFTER THE NUTMEG IS CONSUMED. VERY
LARGE DOSES MAY BE FATAL” (RIN). DOSES EXCEEDING 1 TSP TAKE EFFECT WITHIN 2 TO 5 HR, PRODUCING
TIME-SPACE DISTORTIONS, FEELINGS OF UNREALITY, AND SOMETIMES VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS ACCOMPANIED BY
DIZZINESS, HEADACHE, ILLNESS, AND RAPID HEARTBEAT (ANONYMOUS). REVIEWING RESEARCH ON MYRISTICIN,
WHICH OCCURS ALSO IN BLACK PEPPER, CARROT SEED, CELERY SEED, AND PARSLEY, IT IS NOTED THAT THE
PSYCHOACTIVE AND HALLUCINOGENIC PROPERTIES OF MACE, NUTMEG, AND PURIFIED MYRISTICIN HAVE BEEN
STUDIED. IT HAS BEEN HYPOTHESIZED THAT MYRISTICIN AND ELEMICIN CAN BE READILY MODIFIED IN THE BODY
TO AMPHETAMINES.
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE ORAL LD50 FOR NUTMEG OIL IN RATS, MICE, AND HAMSTERS IS 2600, 5620, AND 6000 MG/KG,
RESPECTIVELY. (FOR MORE DATA ON THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIA) (CRC, DAD).
INDICATIONS (NUTMEG) — AGORAPHOBIA (F; HHB); ANOREXIA (F; CRC); ARTHROSIS (F; JLH) ASTHMA
(F; CRC); BACILLUS (1; X10548758); BACTERIA (1; FNF; X10548758); CANCER (1; APA; CRC; FNF);
CANCER, GUM (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, JOINT (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER,
MOUTH (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; CRC; JLH); CHILDBIRTH (F; BOW; CRC); CHOLERA (F;
FEL; PH2); COLD (F; CRC; FEL); COLIC (F; AHP; CRC; HHB); CRAMP (1; BOW; CRC; FNF;
PH2); CYSTOSIS (F; CRC; MPI); DEBILITY (F; PH2); DELIRIUM (F; BOW); DIARRHEA (1; AHP; APA;
FNF; PH2); DYSENTERY (1; CRC; FNF; PH2); DYSMENORRHEA (F; HHB); DYSPEPSIA (F; AHP; APA;
CRC; PH2); ECZEMA (F; BOW); ENTEROSIS (F; BOW); ESCHERICHIA (1; X10548758); FEVER (F; CRC;
FEL; PH2); FUNGUS (1; FNF; X10548758); GAS (F; AHP; APA; CRC; PH2); GASTROSIS (F; CRC;
PHR; PH2); HEADACHE (F; CRC; PH2); HEART (F; CRC); HEARTBURN (F; HHB); HEMORRHOID (F;
CRC; FEL); HEPATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; APA; FNF); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES (1;
JE55:49); HIV (1; FNF); HYPERCALCEMIA (1; CRC); HYPOCHONDRIA (F; HHB); HYSTERIA (F; HHB);
IMPOTENCE (F; PH2); INCONTINENCE (F; BOW); INDURATION (F; CRC; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF;
X10548758); INFLAMMATION (1; CRC; FNF; PH2); INSANITY (F; CRC); INSOMNIA (F; APA; PH2);
LACHRIMOSIS (F; HHB); LEPROSY (F; CRC); LEUKEMIA (1; FNF); LEUKORRHEA (F; CRC; FEL);
LYMPHOSIS (F; CRC); MALARIA (F; CRC; FEL; PH2); MYCOSIS (1; X10548758); NAUSEA (F; BOW;
CRC); NEPHROSIS (F; APA; CRC); NEURALGIA (F; PH2); NEURASTHENIA (F; HHB); NEUROSIS (F; PH2);
OPHTHALMIA (F; PH2); PAIN (1; APA; FNF); PARALYSIS (F; MPI); PNEUMONIA (F; FEL); RESPIROSIS
(F; CRC; PH2); RHEUMATISM (1; APA; CRC; FNF; MPI; PH2); SCIATICA (F; CRC; MPI; PH2);
SPLENOSIS (F; CRC); SPERMATORRHEA (F; BOW); SPRAIN (F; MPI); STOMACHACHE (F; CRC; FEL;
MPI); STOMATOSIS (F; APA); TOOTHACHE (F; APA); TUBERCULOSIS (F; CRC); TUMOR (1; CRC; FNF;
JLH); URETHROSIS (F; MPI); UTI (F; CRC); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; PH2); WATER RETENTION
(1; FNF); XEROSTOMIA (F; HHB); YEAST (1; X10548758).
NUTMEG FOR CANCER:
• ANTIEBV: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• ANTIHIV: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; ELEMICIN; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL;
MYRISTICIN; QUERCETIN; SAFROLE; SALICYLATES
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; DELPHINIDIN; EUGENOL;
EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER; GERANIOL; ISOEUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRISTICIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SAFROLE; TERPINEOL; VANILLIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN;
SALICYLATES
• ANTILEUKEMIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: GERANIOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; MYRCENE;
QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CYANIDIN; DELPHINIDIN; EUGENOL;
GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN; TERPINEOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL
• ANTISARCOMIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTISTRESS: ELEMICIN; MYRISTICIN
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-HUMULENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL;
LIMONENE; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; DIPENTENE;
GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN;
VANILLIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• BETA-GLUCURONIDASE-INHIBITOR: OLEANOLIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYTOCHROME-P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE; SAFROLE
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• DNA-BINDER: ELEMICIN; EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER; SAFROLE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: 1,8-CINEOLE; DELTA-CADINENE; QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• REVERSE-TRANSCRIPTASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
NUTMEG FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GENTISIC-ACID; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE;
QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; SAFROLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL;
CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRONELLOL; DEHYDROISOEUGENOL; DELTA-CADINENE; DIPENTENE;
EUGENOL; GENTISIC-ACID; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MALABARICONE-B; MALABARICONE-C; MYRCENE; NEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PINENE; QUERCETIN; SAFROLE; SCLAREOL; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINEOL
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN;
SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CITRONELLOL;
EUGENOL; FORMIC-ACID; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LICARIN-A; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NEROL;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; PINENE; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINEOL
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; DIPENTENE;
GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN;
VANILLIN
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CAMPHOR; CAPRYLIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRONELLOL; DEHYDROISOEUGENOL; ELEMICIN;
EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; ISOELEMICIN; LINALOOL; MALABARICONE-B; MALABARICONE-C;
MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; OCTANOIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PINENE; QUERCETIN; SCLAREOL; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE; VANILLIN
• FUNGISTAT: FORMIC-ACID; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (NUTMEG) — BOTH NUTMEG AND MACE ARE USED AS SPICES IN MANY AMERICAN AND
EXOTIC DISHES. SEEDS ARE THE SOURCE OF NUTMEG, USED TO FLAVOR CAKES, CUSTARDS, EGGNOG, PIES,
PUDDINGS, PUNCHES, POSSETS, SAUCES, AND VEGETABLES, SUCH AS CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND SPINACH.
MACE, THE DRIED ARIL, IS FAVORED TO FLAVOR BAKED GOODS, CAKES, CURRIES, FRUITS, SALADS, KETCHUPS,
PICKLES, SOUPS, AND SAUCES. POWDERED MACE, SPRINKLED ON COOKED CABBAGE, MASKS THE SULFIDE
ODOR. NUTMEG APPEARS IN SEVERAL SPICE BLENDS, CURRY POWDERS, GARAM MASALA, JERK SEASONINGS,
MIXED SPICES, MULLING SPICES, AND QUATRE ÉPICES. BOTH NUTMEG AND MACE ARE INDISPENSABLE
INGREDIENTS OF RAS EL HANOUT. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS USE SOME NUTMEG FOR JERKED MEATS, AND IN CURRY
POWDER. WHOLE NUTMEGS CAN BE QUARTERED AND BOILED WITH CREAM, SUGAR SYRUP, BROTH, OR SOME
OTHER ELEMENT OF A RECIPE TO IMPART A GOOD NUTMEG FLAVOR. MACE CAN BE USED IN PLACE OF NUTMEG,
BUT USE A PINCH LESS MACE. FRUITS ARE SOMETIMES GATHERED BEFORE MATURING TO MAKE JELLY. THE
FLESH OF THE FRUIT IS CUT INTO SLICES AND EATEN AS A DELICACY WITH SAMBAL (HOT-PEPPER SAUCE), PICKLED,
CANDIED, PRESERVED, OR MADE INTO NUTMEG-FLAVORED JAMS, JELLIES, AND SYRUPS (FAC). BOTH NUTMEG
AND MACE YIELD AN EO USED FOR FLAVORING FOODS AND LIQUEURS. OIL OF NUTMEG IS DISTILLED FOR
EXTERNAL MEDICINE AND PERFUMES. OIL, DISTILLED FROM THE LEAVES, HAS A SPICY, AROMATIC, PLEASANT
FLAVOR AND IS USED IN MAKING TOILET AND MEDICINAL PRODUCTS, AS A FLAVORING ESSENCE, AND IN CHEWING
GUM. NUTMEG BUTTER, DERIVED FROM BROKEN SEEDS AND POOR GRADE MACE, IS USED IN MEDICINAL
OINTMENTS, SUPPOSITORIES, AND PERFUMERY. IN AYURVEDIC DOCUMENTS, NUTMEG WAS CALLED
“MADASHAUNDA,” A TERM MEANING “NARCOTIC FRUITS.” BETEL CHEWERS IN INDIA OFTEN ADD NUTMEG, AND
IT IS ALSO ADDED TO CHEWING TOBACCOS AND SNUFFS. ON THE ISLAND OF BANDA, A PAP IS MADE OF THE
BARK PRESERVED WITH SUGAR AND TASTING LIKE SOUR APPLES. THE BARK IS PICKLED IN BRINE IN JAVA BUT
TENDS TO INDUCE SLEEP. JUICE FROM THE PERICARP IS AN EFFICACIOUS MORDANT FOR FIXING DYES (AAR,
DAD, FAC).
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF NUTMEG ARE ANTIBACTERIAL, AND AQUEOUS EXTRACTS KILL COCKROACHES, WHILE
THE VOLATILE OILS FROM THE LEAF ARE HERBICIDAL. MYRISTICIN ENHANCES THE TOXICITY OF PYRETHRUM TO
HOUSE-FLIES. PERHAPS THE NATURAL PRODUCTS MIGHT BE LESS DAMAGING ENVIRONMENTALLY THAN SYNTHETICS.
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (NUTMEG) — PROPAGATED BY SEED. SELECTED FRESH SEED ARE PLANTED IN THE SHELL,
SPACED ABOUT L0 × 30 CM, IN NURSERIES WHERE THEY GERMINATE IN ABOUT 6 WEEKS. WHEN THE
SEEDLINGS ARE CA. 15 CM TALL (CA. 6 MONTHS), THEY ARE OUTPLANTED, SPACED ABOUT 8 M APART. MALE
AND FEMALE TREES OCCUR IN ABOUT A 50% RATIO. MOST MALE PLANTS ARE CUT OUT WHEN RECOGNIZED
(WHEN THEY FLOWER AT AGE OF 5–8 YEARS), LEAVING SPACING ABOUT 12–14 M APART. IN GRENADA,
MARCOTS AND APPROACH-GRAFTS, WHEN OUTPLANTED, START BEARING IN 18 MONTHS. FULL-FRUITING AND
BEST YIELDS OBTAINED WHEN TREES ARE 12–20 YEARS OLD; MAY CONTINUE TO BEAR 40–75 OR MORE
YEARS. SEEDLING TREES MAY START BEARING IN 5–8 YEARS, VEGETATIVE SPECIMENS EARLIER. YIELDS
INCREASE UP TO AGE 15 OR SO. FRUITING, SCATTERED OVER THE YEAR, HAS TWO PEAKS, FOLLOWING THE
FLOWERING PERIOD BY ABOUT 6 MONTHS. TREES SHOULD BE PROTECTED FROM EXTREME HEAT AND STRONG
WINDS. WITHOUT ENOUGH SUN, HOWEVER, EO DOES NOT DEVELOP. DURING DRY SPELLS, THE TREES MUST
BE WATERED FREQUENTLY. SHADE IS PROVIDED BY CANARIUM, GLIRICIDIA, OR MUSA. NUTMEG MAY BE
MIXED WITH ARECANUT, COCONUT, COFFEE, RUBBER, AND TEA. LITTLE CULTIVATION IS REQUIRED, AS THE OIL
IN THE LEAVES INHIBITS THE GROWTH OF WEEDS AND GRASS. RIPE FRUITS ARE GATHERED AND MAY SPLIT
OR BURST SHORTLY AFTER GATHERING FROM THE TREE OR OFF THE GROUND. FRUITS THAT LIE ON THE GROUND
TOO LONG MAY DISCOLOR. THE REDDISH ARIL, KNOWN AS MACE, IS RECOVERED FIRST, FLATTENED, AND DRIED.
THERE MAY BE 4000 FRUITS PER TREE (IN INDIA—20,000 ELSEWHERE ARE REPORTED) THE AVERAGE RUNNING
1250 FRUITS PER TREE PER YEAR. IN GRENADA, TREES AVERAGE ABOUT 1000 NUTS WITH 90–100 TREES TO
THE ACRE. AVERAGE NUTMEG YIELDS ARE ABOUT 720 LB DRY (1500 LB GREEN) WITH MACE YIELDS OF
ABOUT 150 LB GREEN, CA. 35 LB DRY TO THE ACRE. DRIED NUTMEGS ARE SUBJECT TO INSECT DAMAGE AND
SHOULD BE LIMED AND/OR STORED IN SEALED CONTAINERS (BOW). (FOR MORE DETAIL, SEE DUKE AND
DUCELLIER, 1993 AND PURSEGLOVE, 1981).
CHEMISTRY (NUTMEG) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN NUTMEG. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ELEMICIN — ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 360 ΜM; ANTIDEPRESSANT; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTISEROTONIC; ANTISTRESS IHL; DNA-BINDER; FUNGICIDE MIC = 8 ΜG; HALLUCINOGENIC; HYPOTENSIVE IHL;
INSECTICIDE 100 PPM; INSECTIFUGE; LARVICIDE 100 PPM; NEUROTOXIC; SCHISTOSOMICIDE.
FURFURAL — ANTISEPTIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 127 ORL RAT.
MYRISTIC-ACID — ANTICANCER; COSMETIC; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC; LUBRICANT; NEMATICIDE; LD50 = 43
IVN MUS.
MYRISTICIN — AMPHETAMINAGENIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 250 ΜM; ANTICANCER 10
MG/MUS/ORL/DAY; ANTIDEPRESSANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOXIDANT 25–100 MG/KG/ORL; ANTISPASMODIC;
ANTISTRESS IHL; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST IC50 = 88 ΜM; DIURETIC; FUNGICIDE MIC = 20 ΜG; HALLUCINOGENIC; HEPATOTOXIC; HYPOTENSIVE IHL; HYPNOTIC; INSECTICIDE 25 PPM; INSECTICIDE-SYNERGIST; LARVICIDE
25 PPM; MAOI; NEUROTOXIC; OXYTOCIC; PARALYTIC; PSYCHOACTIVE; SEDATIVE 300 MG/KG IPR; SEROTONINERGIC 1000 PPM ORL; TACHYCARDIC; UTEROTONIC; LDLO = 570 ORL CAT; LD50 = 200 MG/KG IVN MUS;
LD50 = 1000 MG/KG IPR RAT.
SAFROLE — SEE ALSO SASSAFRAS ALBIDUM.
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MYRTUS COMMUNIS L. (MYRTACEAE)
MYRTLE
MEDICINAL USES (MYRTLE) — THE LEAF IS USED FOR CONDYLOMATA, FIGS, WHITLOWS, WARTS, FIGS, PAROTID
TUMORS, CANCER OF THE GUMS, ULCERATED CANCERS, AND POLYPS. IRANIANS MAKE A HOT POULTICE FOR BOILS
FROM THE PLANT. THE OIL, IN PLASTERS OR UNGUENTS, IS SAID TO HELP INDURATIONS OF THE BREAST, CONDYLOMA
OF THE GENITALS, AND CANCER. THE BERRIES AND SEED ARE SAID TO CURE TUMORS AND UTERINE FIBROIDS (JLH).
AN INFUSION OR TINCTURE OF LEAVES IS GIVEN FOR PROLAPSUS AND LEUCORRHOEA, AND FOR WASHING INCISIONS
AND JOINTS. IT IS ALSO USED TO CHECK NIGHT SWEATS OF PHTHISIS AND FOR ALL TYPES OF PULMONARY DISORDERS.
UNANI DIRECT SMOKE FROM THE LEAVES ONTO HEMORRHOIDS. ITALIANS MAKE A BOLUS OF THE LEAVES IN
TURPENTINE FOR THE SAME INDICATION. ALGERIANS RECOMMEND THE LEAFY INFUSION FOR ASTHMA. UNANI USE
FRUITS FOR BRONCHITIS, HEADACHE, AND MENORRHAGIA (KAB). THEY CONSIDER THE FRUITS USEFUL FOR THE
BLOOD, BRAIN, HAIR, AND HEART. NORTH AFRICANS USE THE DRY FLOWER BUDS FOR SMALLPOX (BIB, PH2, WOI).
LEBANESE CONSIDER THE PLANT BINDING AND DIURETIC, BELIEVING IT HOLDS LOOSE THINGS IN PLACE — THE
BOWELS, THE EMOTIONS, OR THE TEETH. THE EO AND TINCTURE HAVE ANALGESIC PROPERTIES BUT NOT AS STRONG
AS MENTHOL AND PEPPERMINT OIL. WINE OF MYRTLE CORRECTS THE BAD ODOR AND STIMULATES HEALING IN
OFFENSIVE SORES AND ULCERS, THREATENING GANGRENE (FEL).
AQUEOUS AND ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS OF LEAVES, ROOTS, AND STEMS ARE ACTIVE AGAINST GRAM(–) AND
GRAM(+) BACTERIA. THE PLANT CONTAINS ANTIBACTERIAL PHENOLS. ONE THERMOLABILE PRINCIPLE WAS HIGHLY
ACTIVE AGAINST MICROCOCCUS PYOGENES VAR. AUREUS. THE PRINCIPLE RESEMBLED STREPTOMYCIN IN ITS ACTION
ON MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS (WOI). AQUEOUS BERRY EXTRACT IS ACTIVE AGAINST CARRAGEENAN-INDUCED
EDEMA IN RATS PAW [(=)COMPARABLE TO OXYPHENYLBUTAZONE] (MPI).
LARGE DOSES OF MYRTLE MAY CAUSE DIARRHEA, NAUSEA, AND VOMITING, ACCORDING TO GRUENWALD ET AL.
(2000). MORE THAN 10 G MYRTLE OIL CAN THREATEN LIFE, DUE TO HIGH CINEOLE CONTENT (MYRTLE CONTAINS
135–2250 PPM CINEOLE ACCORDING TO MY CALCULATIONS, MEANING 10 G MYRTLE WOULD CONTAIN A
MAXIMUM 22.5 MG CINEOLE). SEVERAL HERBS AND SPICES MAY ATTAIN HIGHER LEVELS OF CINEOLE; SEE
CARDAMOM FOR THE LONGER LIST. MYRTLE PHYTOCHEMICALS ARE SAID TO BE QUICKLY ABSORBED AND TO IMPART
A VIOLET AROMA TO THE URINE WITHIN 15 MIN (BOW).
INDICATIONS (MYRTLE) — ACNE (F; BOW); ADENOSIS (F; JLH); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ALOPECIA (F;
DEP); APHTHA (F; BIB; DEP); APOSTEME (F; JLH); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF; MPI); BACTERIA (1; BIB;
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FNF; WOI); BLEEDING (F; BIB); BPH (F; PH2); BRONCHOSIS (1; BIB; FEL; FNF; HHB; PH2);
CACOETHES (F; BIB); CANCER (F; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (F; JLH); CANCER,
GUM (F; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; JLH); CANCER, THROAT (F; JLH); CANCER,
UTERUS (F; JLH); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CATARRH (F; FEL); COLD (1; PH2); CONDYLOMATA (F; BIB);
CONGESTION (1; FNF); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; FEL); COUGH (1; FNF; MAD); CRAMP (1; FNF); CYSTOSIS
(1; BIB; FEL; FNF; PH2); DIARRHEA (1; BIB; FNF; MAD; PH2); DROPSY (F; MAD); DYSENTERY
(F; BIB); DYSPEPSIA (F; BIB); ECZEMA (F; BIB); EDEMA (1; FNF; MPI); ENCEPHALOSIS (F; BIB;
DEP); ENTEROSIS (F; JLH); EPILEPSY (F; BIB; WOI); FATIGUE (F; PH2); FEVER (F; BIB); FIBROID (F;
JLH); FLU (1; FNF); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GANGRENE (F; FEL); GASTROSIS (F; BIB; MAD); GINGIVOSIS
(F; BOW; JLH); GONORRHEA (F; MAD); GRAY HAIR (F; BIB); HEADACHE (F; BIB); HEMORRHOID (F;
FEL; PH2); HEPATOSIS (F; BIB; JLH; WOI); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF; PH2);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; MPI); INTERTRIGO (F; FEL); LEISHMANIA (1; ABS; FT68:276); LEUKORRHEA
(F; BIB; FEL; PH2); MASTOSIS (F; JLH); MENORRHAGIA (F; FEL); NEPHROSIS (F; FEL); NIGHT SWEAT
(F; BIB); OTOSIS (F; PH2); PAIN (1; FEL; FNF; MAD); PAROTOSIS (F; JLH); PERTUSSIS (1; PH2);
PHARYNGOSIS (F; FEL); PHTHISIS (F; BIB); PLEURODYNIA (F; MAD); POLYP (F; BIB; JLH); PROCTOSIS
(F; JLH); PROLAPSE (F; BIB); PULMONOSIS (1; BIB; MAD); PYELOSIS (F; BIB); RHEUMATISM (F; BIB);
SINUSOSIS (F; PH2); SMALLPOX (1; BIB); SORE (F; BIB); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); TONSILOSIS (F; JLH);
TUBERCULOSIS (1; MAD; PH2; WOI); UROGENITOSIS (F; BIB); UTEROSIS (F; BIB; JLH); UTI (F; BOW);
VAGINOSIS (F; BOW); VIRUS (1; FNF); WART (F; JLH); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WHITLOW (F; BIB);
WORM (F; PH2); WOUND (1; BIB; FNF).
MYRTLE FOR BRONCHOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; DIPENTENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL;
GALLIC-ACID; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN;
MYRICITRIN; NERAL; NEROL; NEROLIDOL; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; GALLIC-ACID
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: LINALOOL; MYRICETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; GAMMA-TERPINENE;
LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: BORNEOL; EUGENOL
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE;
EUGENOL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; MYRCENE
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARVACROL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; DIPENTENE;
ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• BRONCHODILATOR: GALLIC-ACID
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CANDIDICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL;
MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; GALLIC-ACID
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR;
CARVACROL; DIPENTENE; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: GALLIC-ACID
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MYRTLE FOR EDEMA:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYLEUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; GALLIC-ACID
• DIURETIC: MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: MYRICETIN
MYRTLE FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYLEUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; DIPENTENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL;
GALLIC-ACID; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN;
MYRICITRIN; NERAL; NEROL; NEROLIDOL; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARVONE;
ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GALLIC-ACID; GERANIOL; HEXANAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; MYRICETIN; NEROL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; DIPENTENE;
ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• ASTRINGENT: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: GALLIC-ACID; MALIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; GALLIC-ACID
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: GALLIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: MYRICETIN
OTHER USES (MYRTLE) — GROWN SINCE ANCIENT TIMES FOR THE FRAGRANT, AROMATIC FLOWERS, LEAVES, AND
BARK. THE BIG BOOK OF HERBS (TAD) LEADS OFF WITH AN INTERESTING QUOTE, “SARDINIA’S FAVORITE FLAVORING
IS MYRTLE, A PREFERENCE WHICH MAY WELL GO BACK TO THE STONE AGE.” IN SARDINIA, THE WOOD IS USED
FOR THE FIRES TO SPIT COOK OR PIT COOK WHOLE ANIMALS, ESPECIALLY PIG. “GALLINA COL MIRTO” IS BOILED
CHICKEN WITHDRAWN FROM THE POT, COVERED WITH MYRTLE LEAVES, CONSUMED COLD THE FOLLOWING DAY.
YES, THEY USE MYRTLE ALMOST AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR BAY LEAF (TAD). MYRTLE HAS BEEN KNOWN SINCE ANCIENT
TIMES FOR THE FRAGRANT, AROMATIC FLOWERS, LEAVES, AND BARK. IN JERUSALEM AND DAMASCUS, THE FLOWERS,
LEAVES, AND FRUITS ARE SOLD FOR MAKING PERFUME. IN ITALY, THE LEAVES ARE USED AS A SPICE, AND THE
FLOWER BUDS ARE EATEN. LEAVES, MADE INTO TEA, ARE CONSIDERED AN ALTERNATIVE TO “BUCHU.” THE SPRIGS
WERE FORMERLY ADDED TO WINE TO INCREASE ITS POTENCY (FAC). THE LEAVES ARE USED FOR MASSAGE TO
M
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WORK UP A GLOWING SKIN. THE FRAGRANT OIL OBTAINED FROM THE LEAVES IS USED IN PERFUMERY AND AS A
CONDIMENT, ESPECIALLY WHEN MIXED WITH OTHER SPICES. OIL OF MYRTLE IS USED IN ALL KINDS OF CULINARY
COMPOSITIONS, ESPECIALLY TABLE SAUCES. THE OIL IS ALSO USED IN TOILET WATERS, ESPECIALLY EAU DE COLOGNE
AND EAU D’ANGE. GREEN AND DRIED FRUITS SOMETIMES ARE USED AS A CONDIMENT. DRIED FRUITS, LEAVES,
AND FLOWER BUDS ARE USED FOR FLAVORING MEATS, POULTRY, SAUCES, LIQUEURS, AND SYRUPS. WIDELY USED IN
SARDINIA, CORSICA, AND CRETE. IN CORSICA, THE MYRTLE LIQUEUR CALLED “MYRTHE” FLAVORS PÂTÉ DE MERLES.
AROUND RABAT, THEY MIX THE LEAVES WITH SHAMPOO, BELIEVED TO DARKEN THE HAIR. IN INDIA, THE FIXED
OIL FROM THE BERRIES IS ALLEGED TO STRENGTHEN AND PROMOTE THE GROWTH OF HAIR. SEEDS, GROUND AND
MIXED WITH ANTIMONY, ARE USED TO COLOR THE EYELIDS (DEP). TURKISH AND RUSSIAN LEATHER IS TANNED
WITH THE BARK AND ROOTS, IMPARTING A DISTINCTIVE ODOR. THE WOOD IS VERY HARD AND OF INTERESTING
TEXTURE AND GRAIN, GROWING IN MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE. IN BIBLICAL TIMES, JEWS COLLECTED MYRTLE TO
ADORN THEIR SHEDS AND BOOTHS AT THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES, CHIEFLY AS A SYMBOL OF DIVINE GENEROSITY.
IT IS CONSIDERED EMBLEMATIC OF PEACE AND JOY IN THE BIBLE. TO ANCIENT JEWS, IT WAS SYMBOLIC NOT
ONLY OF PEACE, BUT ALSO OF JUSTICE. ARABS SAY THAT MYRTLE IS ONE OF THE THREE PLANTS TAKEN FROM THE
GARDEN OF EDEN, BECAUSE OF ITS FRAGRANCE. GREEKS CONSIDER IT A SYMBOL OF LOVE AND IMMORTALITY AND
USED IT FOR CROWNING THEIR PRIESTS, HEROS, AND OUTSTANDING MEN (BIB, DEP, FAC, PH2).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL., 2002.
CULTIVATION (MYRTLE) — PLANTS ARE OFTEN GROWN FOR ORNAMENT, AS IT MAKES A GOOD HEDGE THAT IS
OFTEN EVERBLOOMING IN PROPER CLIMATES. IT IS SAID TO BE HARDY TO ZONE 9, DOING BEST IN FULL SUN, MOIST
BUT NOT WET SOILS, AND WELL-DRAINED GARDEN LOAMS, AT PH 5.5–8.2 (AVERAGE 6.8). PROPAGATED MAINLY
BY CUTTINGS OF HALF-RIPE OR PARTLY WOODY SHOOTS ABOUT 10 CM LONG, TAKEN IN JULY WITH A SLIGHT HEEL
OF OLD WOOD. CUTTINGS INSERTED IN SAND BED IN GLASS-FRAME OR GREENHOUSE. ROOTS FORM IN A FEW
WEEKS. PLANTING BEST DONE IN SPRING. YOUNG PLANTS POTTED OR PLANTED OUT IN SANDY PEATY SOIL. WHEN
GROWN AS A POTTED PLANT IN THE NORTH, IT SHOULD BE KEPT IN A FROST-PROOF GREENHOUSE OR OTHER LIGHT
BUT COOL PLACE DURING THE WINTER AND SPRING, AND THEN GROWN OUTDOORS IN SUMMER MONTHS. OVERGROWN
PLANTS SHOULD BE PRUNED IN EARLY SPRING IMMEDIATELY BEFORE NEW GROWTH APPEARS.
CHEMISTRY (MYRTLE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN MYRTLE. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
1,8-CINEOLE — SEE ALSO ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM.
LIMONENE — SEE ALSO CARUM CARVI.
LINALOOL — ADI = 500 ΜG/KG; ACARICIDE; ANESTHETIC 0.01–1 ΜG/ML; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIANAPHYLACTIC;
ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 1600 ΜG/ML; ANTICANCER; ANTICARIOGENIC MIC = 1600 ΜG/ML; ANTICONVULSANT
200 MG/KG IPR MUS; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEPTIC 5 × PHENOL; ANTISHOCK; ANTISPASMODIC;
ANTIVIRAL; BARBITURATE-SYNERGIST; BRONCHORELAXANT; CANDIDISTAT; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE; GABAERGIC;
HYPNOTIC; INSECTIFUGE; INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; MOTOR-DEPRESSANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 1 MG/ML; PROOXIDANT; SEDATIVE ED = 1–32 MG/KG, 200 MG/KG IPR MUS (1% AS ACTIVE AS DIAZEPAM); TERMITIFUGE;
TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 600 ΜG/ML; TUMOR-PROMOTER; LD50 = 2790 MG/KG ORL RAT; LD50 = 459
MG/KG IPR MUS.
METHYL-CHAVICOL — ANTIPYRETIC; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST IC50 = 258 ΜM; DNA-BINDER; HEPATOCARCINOGENIC; INSECTICIDE.
VERBENONE — ALLELOCHEMIC; COLEOPTERIFUGE; INSECTIFUGE; LDLO = 250 IPR MUS.
N
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
N
NIGELLA SATIVA L. (RANUNCULACEAE)
BLACK CARAWAY, BLACK CUMIN, FENNEL FLOWER, NUTMEG FLOWER, ROMAN CORIANDER
MEDICINAL USES (BLACK CUMIN) — THIS HERB APPARENTLY MAY BE EVEN MORE IMPORTANT TO THE
MUSLIMS THAN TO THE CHRISTIANS AND JEWS. ACCORDING TO AN ARAB PROVERB, “IN THE BLACK SEED IS THE
MEDICINE FOR EVERY DISEASE EXCEPT DEATH.” SMALL WONDER THAT THE LITERATURE REGARDS IT AS CARMINATIVE,
DIAPHORETIC, DIGESTIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, EXCITANT, LACTAGOGUE, LAXATIVE, RESOLVENT, STIMULANT,
STOMACHIC, TONIC, AND VERMIFUGE. OVER A CENTURY AGO, WE FIND THE FOLLOWING FORMULA FOR ECZEMA
AND HEAD LICE: 2 OZ BRUISED NIGELLA SEED, 2 OZ BRUISED PSORALEA SEED, 2 OZ BDELLIUM, 2 OZ COSCINI
ROOT, 1 OZ SULFUR IN TWO BOTTLES OF COCONUT OIL (DEP). IN AYURVEDIC MEDICINE, WHERE USED AS A
PURGATIVE ADJUNCT, THE HERB IS CONSIDERED APERITIF, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, EMMENAGOGUE, AND VERMIFUGE. IN UNANI, IT IS FURTHER CONSIDERED ABORTIFACIENT AND DIURETIC AND USED FOR ASCITES, COUGHS,
EYE-SORES, HYDROPHOBIA, JAUNDICE, PARALYSIS, PILES, AND TERTIAN FEVER. ALGERIANS TAKE THE ROASTED SEEDS
WITH BUTTER FOR COUGH, WITH HONEY FOR COLIC. LEBANESE TOOK THE SEED EXTRACT FOR LIVER AILMENTS. IN
INDONESIA, THE SEEDS ARE ADDED TO ASTRINGENT MEDICINES FOR ABDOMINAL DISORDERS. IN MALAYA, THE
N
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SEEDS ARE POULTICED ONTO ABSCESSES, HEADACHE, NASAL ULCERS, ORCHITIS, AND RHEUMATISM. ETHIOPIANS
MIX THE SEED WITH MELTED BUTTER, WRAP IT IN A CLOTH, AND SNIFF IT FOR HEADACHE. ARABIAN WOMEN USE
THE SEEDS AS A GALACTAGOGUE. MIXING CURRY (WHICH CONTAINS FENUGREEK) WITH BLACK CUMIN FOR NURSES,
THE INDIANS HAD A DOUBLE WHAMMY LACTAGOGUE. IN LARGE QUANTITIES, THE SEED ARE ALSO USED TO INDUCE
ABORTION. THE LIPID PORTION OF THE ETHER EXTRACT OF BLACK CUMIN SEEDS HAS SHOWN LACTAGOGUE ACTIVITY
IN RATS, VERIFYING ITS FOLK USAGE AS A LACTAGOGUE. AND NIGELLONE IN THE OIL PROTECTS GUINEA PIGS AGAINST
HISTAMINE INDUCED BRONCHOSPASMS, SUGGESTING THE RATIONALE BEHIND ITS USE IN ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS,
AND COUGH.
EL TAHIR ET AL. (1993B) REPORTED THAT THE VOLATILE SEED OIL (IVN 4–32 ΜL/KG) DOSE-DEPENDENTLY
STIMULATED RESPIRATORY RATE AND INTRATRACHEAL PRESSURE. STRANGELY, IVN THYMOQUINONE (1.6–6.4
MG/KG) SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED INTRATRACHEAL PRESSURE BUT DID NOT AFFECT THE RESPIRATORY RATE. THE
OIL-INDUCED RESPIRATORY EFFECTS MAY BE DUE TO HISTAMINE RELEASE AND INDIRECT ACTIVATION OF MUSCARINIC CHOLINERGIC MECHANISMS. THEY SUGGEST THAT REMOVING THE USEFUL THYMOQUINONE WOULD
MAKE THE RESIDUAL OIL A USEFUL RESPIRATORY STIMULANT (X8270170). GILANI ET AL. (2001) NOTE THAT
THE “KALONJI” SEED ARE USED TRADITIONALLY FOR ASTHMA. THE CRUDE EXTRACT CAUSED A DOSE-DEPENDENT
(0.1–3.0 MG/ML) RELAXATION OF SPONTANEOUS CONTRACTIONS IN RABBIT JEJUNUM. THE PETROLEUM ETHER
FRACTION WAS SOME 10 TIMES MORE ACTIVE THAN THE CRUDE EXTRACT. THE SEEDS EXHIBIT BRONCHODILATOR
AND ANTISPASMODIC ACTIVITIES MEDIATED POSSIBLY THROUGH CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKADE, PROVING THE
UTILITY OF THE SEED FOR DIARRHEA AND ASTHMA (X11381824).
DE ET AL. (1999) SCREENED 35 INDIAN SPICES FOR ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY. BLACK CUMIN, BISHOP’S
WEED, CAMBOGE, CELERY, CHILLI, CLOVE, CINNAMON, CUMIN, GARLIC, HORSERADISH, NUTMEG, ONION, POMEGRANATE, TAMARIND, AND TEJPAT PROVED TO HAVE POTENT ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES AGAINST THE TEST ORGANISMS
BACILLUS SUBTILIS (ATCC 6633), ESCHERICHIA COLI (ATCC 10536), AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE
(ATCC 9763). SUCH RESULTS CONFIRM TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS,
AND ANTISEPTICS (X10548758).
CARDIOVASCULAR ACTIVITY OF THE VOLATILE OIL HAS BEEN EXAMINED. INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION OF THE
OIL AT 4–32 ΜL/KG OR THYMOQUINONE AT 0.2–1.6 MG/KG LOWERED ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE AND HEART RATE
DOSE-DEPENDENTLY. THE OIL HAS POTENTIAL AS BEING AN ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT (X8270171). OIL ADMINISTRATION SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED SERUM TOTAL CHOLESTEROL, LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN, AND TRIGLYCERIDES
AND SIGNIFICANTLY ELEVATED SERUM HDL (X11050701).
EL-DAKHAKHNY ET AL. (2000) REPORTED POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE SEED OIL ON GASTRIC SECRETION AND
ETHANOL INDUCED ULCERS IN RATS. THE OIL LED TO SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN MUCIN AND GLUTATHIONE DECREASES
IN MUCOSAL HISTAMINE. ETHANOL ADMINISTRATION PRODUCED 100% ULCERS IN ALL RATS. THEY ALSO NOTE THAT
BLACK CUMIN OIL PROTECTS AGAINST INDUCED HEPATOTOXICITY AND IMPROVES SERUM LIPID PROFILE IN RATS.
DAILY OIL ADMINISTRATION (800 MG/KG ORALLY FOR 4 WEEKS) DID NOT ADVERSELY EFFECT ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE, SERUM BILIRUBIN OR PROTHROMBIN ACTIVITY, OR SERUM TRANSAMINASES (ALT AND AST). THYMOQUINONE HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE HEPATOPROTECTIVE, AT LEAST AGAINST HEPATOTOXICITY OF CARBON TETRACHLORIDE IN MICE (MANSOUR, 2000).
ABUHARFEIL ET AL. (2001) FOUND THAT AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF NIGELLA, (USED IN JORDANIAN TRADITIONAL
MEDICINE FOR CANCER) AUGMENTED NATURAL KILLER CELLS AND SHOWED CYTOTOXIC ACTIVITY AGAINST TUMOR
TARGETS. THE SEED EXTRACTS AUGMENTED SPLENIC NKCS (62.3% CF 52.6% FOR GARLIC EXTRACTS, AND 30.6%
FOR ONION EXTRACTS) (PR15:109). WORTHEN ET AL. (1998) FOUND THAT BOTH THYMOQUINONE AND DITHYMOQUINONE ARE CYTOTOXIC FOR SEVERAL TYPES OF HUMAN TUMOR CELLS, AND MAY NOT BE MDR SUBSTRATES,
MAKING THEM USEFUL EITHER ALONE OR IN CONJUNCTION WITH DRUGS TO MDR HAS DEVELOPED. THYMOQUINONE
INHIBITED INDUCED FORESTOMACH CARCINOGENESIS IN MICE (BADARY AND GAMAL, 2001). THYMOQUINONE
ALSO PREVENTED FIBROSARCOMA INDUCED BY 20-METHYLCHOLANTHRENE IN MALE SWISS ALBINO MICE (BADARY
AND GAMAL, 2001). THE SEEDS ARE RICH IN STEROLS (5100 PPM), OF WHICH 63.1% IS THE ANTITUMOR STEROL,
BETA-SITOSTEROL. NIGELLA SEEMS EFFECTIVE AT KILLING CERTAIN CANCER CELLS WHILE LEAVING NORMAL CELLS
INTACT. IT HELPS REDUCE OR PREVENT TOXICITY OF SOME TOXIC ANTICANCER DRUGS, E.G., PROTECTING BONE MARROW
AGAINST CHEMOTHERAPY. SEED EXTRACT ENHANCE IMMUNE RESPONSE, WITH INCREASED ACTIVITY OF T-HELPER
AND NMKCS CELLS, AND INTERFERON-LIKE RESPONSES. U.S. PATENT NO. 5,482,711 (JANUARY 1996) AND NO.
N
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
5,653,981 (AUGUST 1997) CONCERN IMMUNOSTIMULANT FEATURES OF BLACK CUMIN EXTRACTS. CISPLATIN, A
WIDELY USED CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC DRUG, CAN BE TOXIC TO THE KIDNEY. WHEN ADMINISTERED IP FOR 5 ALTERNATE
DAYS WITH 3 MG/KG CISPLATIN, CYSTEINE (20 MG/KG) TOGETHER WITH VITAMIN E (2 MG/RAT), AN EXTRACT OF
CROCUS SATIVUS STIGMAS (50 MG/KG), AND NIGELLA SATIVA SEED (50 MG/KG) SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED BLOOD
UREA NITROGEN (BUN) AND SERUM CREATININE LEVELS AS WELL AS CISPLATIN-INDUCED SERUM TOTAL LIPIDS
INCREASES. GIVEN TOGETHER WITH CISPLATIN, THE PROTECTIVE AGENTS LED TO AN EVEN GREATER DECREASE IN
BLOOD GLUCOSE THAN SEEN WITH CISPLATIN ALONE. THE SERUM ACTIVITIES OF ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE, LACTATE
DEHYDROGENASE, MALATE DEHYDROGENASE, ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE, AND ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE OF
CISPLATIN-TREATED RATS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED, WHEREAS THE ACTIVITIES OF GLUTATHIONE REDUCTASE
AND ISOCITRATE DEHYDROGENASE WERE SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED. THE COMBINATION ALSO PARTIALLY REVERSED
MANY OF THE KIDNEY ENZYMES CHANGES INDUCED BY CISPLATIN AND TENDED TO PROTECT FROM CISPLATIN-INDUCED DIMINUTIONS IN LEUCOCYTE COUNTS, HAEMOGLOBIN LEVELS, AND MEAN OSMOTIC FRAGILITY OF
ERYTHROCYTES. THEY CONCLUDED THAT CYSTEINE AND VITAMIN E, CROCUS SATIVUS AND NIGELLA SATIVA COULD
BE USEFUL REDUCING CISPLATIN-TOXIC SIDE EFFECTS INCLUDING NEPHROTOXICITY (EL DALY, 1998).
THE CRUDE FIXED OIL AND ITS PURE THYMOQUINONE BOTH INHIBITED THE CYCLOOXYGENASE AND 5-LIPOXYGENASE PATHWAYS OF ARACHIDONATE METABOLISM (IN RAT PERITONEAL LEUKOCYTES STIMULATED WITH CALCIUM
IONOPHORE A23187, AS SHOWN BY DOSE-DEPENDENT INHIBITION OF THROMBOXANE B2 AND LEUKOTRIENE B4,
RESPECTIVELY). THE THYMOQUINONE WAS QUITE POTENT, WITH APPROXIMATE IC50 VALUES AGAINST 5-LIPOXYGENASE AND CYCLOOXYGENASE OF <1 ΜG/ML, AND 3.5 ΜG/ML RESPECTIVELY. THYMOQUINONE WAS SOME
TENFOLD MORE POTENT. SINCE THE INHIBITION OF EICOSANOID GENERATION AND LIPID PEROXIDATION BY THE
FIXED OIL IS GREATER THAN WOULD BE EXPECTED FROM ITS CONTENT OF THYMOQUINONE (CA. 0.2% W/V), THERE
MUST BE SYNERGY OR OTHER CONTRIBUTING PHYTOCHEMICALS, SUPPORTING THE TRADITIONAL USE OF THE SEED
AND DERIVATIVES FOR RHEUMATISM AND OTHER RELATED INFLAMMATORY DISEASES (HOUGHTON ET AL., 1995).
THE SEEDS CONTAIN CA. 1.5% MELANTHINE, A BAD SMELLING FISH POISON.
INDICATIONS (BLACK CUMIN) — ACHYLIA (F; MAD); ALLERGY (F; HAD); AMEBA (1; MPI); AMENORRHEA
(F; KAP); ANOREXIA (1; HAD); ARTHROSIS (1; HAD); ASCITES (F; BIB); ASTHMA (1; HAD; HHB; MAD;
SKJ; WOI); BACILLUS (1; X10548758); BACTERIA (1; HAD); BILIOUSNESS (F; KAP); BITE (F; HAD);
BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF; HAD; HHB; WOI); BRONCHOSPASM (1; WOI); CACHEXIA (F; SKJ); CALLUS (F;
BIB; JLH); CANCER (1; ABS; BIB; FNF; HAD); CANCER, ABDOMEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, COLON
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, EYE (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, NOSE (1; FNF;
JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CANDIDA (1; ABS); CARDIOPATHY (1; X8270171); CATARRH (F;
DEP; HHB); CHILDBIRTH (F; SUW); CHOLERA (1; MPI); COLD (F; DEP); COLIC (F; BIB); CONSTIPATION
(F; SKJ); CORN (F; BIB; JLH); COUGH (1; SKJ; WOI); CRAMP (1; FNF; HHB; MAD); DERMATOSIS
(F; HAD; SUW; WOI); DIABETES (1; HAD); DIARRHEA (1; MAD; X11381824); DYSENTERY (F; HHB;
SKJ); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DEP; KAP); DYSPEPSIA (F; BIB); ECZEMA (F; DEP); EMACIATION (F; SKJ);
ENTEROSIS (F; BIB; MAD); ERUPTION (F; BIB); ESCHERICHIA (1; KAP; MPI); FEVER (1; BIB; MAD;
SUW; WOI); FIBROSARCOMA (1; X11531013); FLU (F; BIB); FUNGUS (1; X10548758); GAS (F; MAD);
GOUT (1; HHB); HEADACHE (F; BIB); HEMORRHOID (F; BIB); HEPATOSIS (1; BIB; JLH; MAD;
X10883736); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; MPI; X82701710); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; HAD); HIV (1;
HAD); HYDROPHOBIA (F; BIB); HYPERLIPIDEMIA (1; X10755708); INDURATION (F; JLH; MAD); INFECTION (1; HAD); INFLAMMATION (1; X10552840); JAUNDICE (F; BIB; HHB; MAD); LEPROSY (F; SKJ);
LEUKEMIA (1; X1270717); LEUKORRHEA (F; MAD); LICE (F; DEP); MALARIA (F; KAP); MYCOSIS (1;
X10548758); MYRMECIA (F; BIB); NEPHROSIS (1; X10755708); OBESITY (1; FNF); OPHTHALMIA (F;
HAD); ORCHOSIS (F; BIB); PAIN (1; HAD); PARALYSIS (F; BIB); PARASITE (1; HAD); PMS (1; HAD);
PROCTOSIS (F; SKJ); PROLAPSE (F; SKJ); PROTEINURIA (1; X10755708); PITYRIASIS (F; DEP); PUERPERIUM
(1; WOI); PULMONOSIS (F; HAD; HHB; MAD); RHINOSIS (F; BIB); SALMONELLA (1; HAD); SCLEROSIS
(F; BIB); SMALLPOX (F; SKJ); SNAKEBITE (F; BIB); SNIFFLE (F; MAD); SPLENOSIS (F; MAD); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; HAD; MPI); STING (F; HAD; SUW); STOMACHACHE (F; BIB; MAD); STOMATOSIS (F; HAD);
SWELLING (F; BIB); SYPHILIS (F; SKJ); TOOTHACHE (F; MAD); TUMOR (F; BIB; HAD); VIBRIO (1; MPI);
VIRUS (1; HAD); WORM (F; MAD); WOUND (F; HAD) YEAST (1; X10548758).
N
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BLACK CUMIN FOR ASTHMA:
• ANTIASTHMATIC: NIGELLONE; THYMOQUINONE
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: NIGELLONE; THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: NIGELLONE; RUTIN; THYMOQUINONE
• ANTIOXIDANT: RUTIN; THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• ANTISPASMODIC: NIGELLONE; RUTIN; THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• EXPECTORANT: ASTRAGALIN; THYMOL
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: RUTIN; THYMOQUINONE
BLACK CUMIN FOR CANCER:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: THYMOL
• ANTICANCER: CARVONE; D-LIMONENE; INDOLE-3-ACETIC-ACID; RUTIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-SPINASTEROL; CYCLOARTENOL; HEDERAGENIN; RUTIN; THYMOL
• ANTILEUKEMIC: ASTRAGALIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: D-LIMONENE; THYMOL
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: RUTIN; THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• ANTITUMOR: D-LIMONENE; RUTIN
• ANTIVIRAL: RUTIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: THYMOL; THYMOQUINONE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ASTRAGALIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: RUTIN; THYMOQUINONE
• SUNSCREEN: RUTIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: RUTIN
OTHER USES (BLACK CUMIN) — WIDELY CULTIVATED FOR ITS AROMATIC SEEDS, USED WHOLE OR GROUND AS
A FLAVORING, ESPECIALLY IN ORIENTAL COOKERY. THE TINY SEEDS ARE VERY HOT TO THE PALATE AND ARE SPRINKLED
ON FOOD LIKE PEPPER. IN EUROPE, THEY ARE SOMETIMES MIXED WITH REAL PEPPER. THEY WERE USED LIKE
BLACK PEPPER BEFORE THE INTRODUCTION OF BLACK PEPPER. FRENCH ONCE USED THE BLACK CUMIN IN LIEU OF
BLACK PEPPER UNDER THE NAME “UATRE EPICES” OR “TOUTE EPICES.” WHOLE SEEDS (FITCHES) ARE USED IN
RUSSIAN RYE BREAD AND FOR FLAVORING TURKISH BREADS. CALLED “SIYAH DANEH” OR “ONION SEED,” THEY ARE
SPRINKLED ON CAKES, FLATBREADS, AND ROLLS. ARABS MIX THE SEED WITH HONEY AS A CONFECTIONARY. SEEDS
ALSO USED IN ARMENIAN STRING CHEESE, TEL BANIR, HALOUMI, OTHER CHEESES, CHUTNEYS, CURRIES, PICKLES,
PRESERVED LEMONS, AND VEGETABLES. ETHIOPIANS ADD THEM TO CAPSICUM PEPPER SAUCES. SEEDS MAY BE
USED AS A STABILIZING AGENT FOR EDIBLE FATS. A REDDISH-BROWN AND SEMI-DRYING FATTY OIL IS OBTAINED
FROM THE SEEDS WITH BENZENE AND SUBSEQUENT STEAM DISTILLATION OF THE EXTRACT TO REMOVE ABOUT 31%
OF THE VOLATILE OIL. ETHIOPIANS MAY ADD NIGELLA, AFRAMOMUM, PIPER, AND ZINGIBER TO LOCAL ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES. INDIANS USE THEM IN A SPICE MIXTURE CALLED “PANCH PHORAN” (FAC). SUDANESE USE IN SUCH
FERMENTED FOODS AS ABREH, HULU-MUR, AND MISH (FAC). SEEDS ARE SPRINKLED AMONG WOOLENS AS A
MOTH REPELLANT (BIB, WOI). IN THE BIBLE, EZEKIEL RECITES A RECIPE I HAVE SEEN NOWHERE ELSE, “TAKE
THOU UNTO THEE WHEAT, AND BARLEY, AND BEANS, AND LENTILES, AND MILLET, AND FITCHES, AND PUT THEM IN
ONE VESSEL, AND MAKE THEE BREAD THEREOF… AND THOU SHALT EAT IT AS BARLEY CAKES….” BEAN BREAD,
GOOD FOR THE HEART; THE MORE YOU EAT THE LESS YOU INFARCT.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
N
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CULTIVATION (BLACK CUMIN) — MORE OFTEN WILD CRAFTED THAN CULTIVATED, THIS ANNUAL WEED ONLY
PARTIALLY FITS THE SPICE DEFINITION, BUT IT IS THE SEEDS THAT ARE USED. SEED CAN BE SOWN IN SPRING OR
FALL, IN SITU, IN WELL-DRAINED SUNNY SOIL. A SHORT-LIVED ANNUAL, IT SEEDS WITHIN LESS THAN THREE MONTHS.
CHEMISTRY (BLACK CUMIN) — THE EO ALONE CONTAINS FOUR ANTIOXIDANTS THAT SCAVENGE FREE RADICALS:
ANTHEOLE, CARVACROL, 4-TERPINEOL, AND THYMOQUINONE (BURITS AND BUCAR, 2000). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE
MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN BLACK CUMIN. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND
THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND
THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ANETHOLE — SEE ALSO OSMORHIZA SPP.
ARGININE — ANTIDIABETIC; ANTIENCEPHALOPATHIC; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIINFERTILITY 4 G/DAY; ANTIOXIDANT;
APHRODISIAC 3 G/DAY; DIURETIC; HYPOAMMONEMIC; PITUITARY-STIMULANT; SPERMIGENIC 4 G/DAY.
CARVACROL — SEE ALSO CUNILA ORIGANOIDES.
CARVONE — ANTIACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IC50 = 1.4–1.8 MM; ANTICANCER; ANTISEPTIC (1.5 × PHENOL);
CARMINATIVE; CNS-STIMULANT; INSECTICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; MOTOR-DEPRESSANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 1
MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 300 ΜG/ML; VERMICIDE. LD50 = 1640 ORL RAT.
METHIONINE — ANTICANCER; ANTICATARACT; ANTIDOTE (ACETOMINAPHEN; PARACETAMOL) 10 G/16
HR/MAN/ORL; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPARKINSONIAN 1–5 G DAY; EMETIC; ESSENTIAL; GLUTATHIONIGENIC; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; LIPOTROPIC; URINE-ACIDIFIER 200 MG/3× DAY/MAN/ORL;
URINE-DEODORANT.
NIGELLONE — ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTISPASMODIC.
4-TERPINEOL — ANTIASTHMATIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRADICULAR; DIURETIC; INSECTIFUGE.
THYMOQUINONE — ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC 15 ΜM; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTINEPHROTIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROTEINURIC; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUMOR IC50 = 78–393 ΜM; CARDIODEPRESSANT 0.2–1.6 MG/KG IVN RAT; CHEMOPREVENTIVE 15 ΜM; CHOLERETIC; DETOXICANT 15 ΜM; GLUTATHIOGENIC 15 ΜM; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPOLIPIDEMIC; HYPOTENSIVE 0.2–1.6 MG/KG IVN RAT; MDR-INHIBITOR
IC50 = 78–393 ΜM; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 15 ΜM; TOXIC; URICOSURIC.
O
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
O
OSMORHIZA SPP. (APIACEAE)
ANISEROOT, CLAYTON’S SWEETROOT, HAIRY SWEET CICELY,
SMOOTH SWEET CICELY, WILD SWEET CICELY
UNABLE TO DISTINGUISH THE TWO SPECIES IN MARYLAND, O. CLAYTONII (MICHX.) C. B. CLARKE AND O.
LONGISTYLIS (TORR.) DC., I HAVE MERGED DATA FROM DEM AND OTHERS FOR THE TWO COMMON MARYLAND
SPECIES, DOUBTING THAT OTHERS CAN DISTINGUISH THEM ANY BETTER THAN I CAN.
MEDICINAL USES (SWEETROOT) — IN HIS GREAT BOOK, MOERMAN (1998) MAINTAINS THE TWO SPECIES
AS DISTINCT, WITH SEVERAL OVERLAPS IN USAGES. HE NOTES THAT CHIPPEWA POULTICE CLAYTON’S SWEETROOT
ON RUNNING SORES AND GARGLE THE ROOT DECOCTION FOR SORE THROAT. CHIPPEWA WOMEN TAKE THE ROOT
INFUSION TO BRING ON THE PERIOD. MENOMINEE USE THE ROOT AS A FATTENING AGENT AND IN AN EYEWASH
(COLLYRIUM) FOR SORE EYES. OJIBWA USE THE ROOT DECOCTION IN CHILDBIRTH AND TAKE THE INFUSION FOR
SORE THROAT. TLINGIT USE WARM TEA OF THE WHOLE PLANT FOR COUGH. MOERMAN CITES CHEYENNE USAGE
OF LONGSTYLE SWEETROOT FOR BLOATED OR DISORDERED STOMACH. THEY USE THE ROOTS FOR KIDNEY AILMENT.
O
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MESKWAKI USE THE LEAF INFUSION AS A FATTENER AND AS AN EYE REMEDY. THEY GRATE THE ROOT WITH
SALT FOR EQUINE DISTEMPER. OMAHA AND WINNEBAGO APPLY THE POUNDED ROOT TO BOILS. PAWNEE TAKE
THE ROOT DECOCTION FOR DEBILITY AND GENERAL WEAKNESS. POTAWATOMI USE AS COLLYRIUM AND USE THE
ROOT INFUSION AS A STOMACHIC. BUT MOERMAN CITES NO CHEROKEE USAGES. FOR CHEROKEE USAGE, WE
CAN THANK MY FRIEND DAVID WINSTON (2001), HIMSELF PART CHEROKEE. HE DESCRIBES IT, IN WESTERN
TERMS, AS CARMINATIVE, DEMULCENT, EXPECTORANT, IMMUNOTONIC, AND NUTRITIVE. HE ADDS THAT CHEROKEE HAVE LONG CONSIDERED IT IMPORTANT FOR INCREASING DISEASE RESISTANCE, STRENGTH, AND WEIGHT.
THE ROOT TEA (1 TSP DRY ROOT TO 8 OZ WATER, COOKED 3–4 HOURS OR STEEPED 2 HOURS, 2–3 CUPS/DAY)
IS USED FOR COLD, DRY COUGH, FLU, GAS, GASTRITIS, AND INDIGESTION. “SWEET CICELY STRENGTHENS WHAT
THE CHINESE CALL THE ‘WEI QI,’ MAKING IT USEFUL FOR PREVENTING COLDS AND OTHER EXTERNAL PERNICIOUS
INFLUENCES. THE ROOT CAN BE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR LICORICE OR ASTRAGALUS WITH MANY SIMILAR
APPLICATIONS” (WINSTON, 2001). ALFS (2001) QUOTES A CANADIAN HERBALIST WHO RECOMMENDS THE
HERB FOR TONIFYING THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. MANY OF THE MEDICINAL USES MAY BE RATIONALIZED BY
THE HIGH ANETHOLE CONTENT. ONE OF MY HERBAL FRIENDS SAYS THAT HE, LIKE ME, DOES NOT DISTINGUISH
THE TWO SPECIES BUT DOESN’T USE IT IF IT DOESN’T SMELL LIKE ANISE. THAT MAKES SENSE TO REDUCTIONISTIC
ME, BECAUSE I ATTRIBUTE MUCH OF THE MEDICINAL ACTIVITY TO THE ANETHOLE, WHICH MAKES MANY OF
THE INDIVIDUALS SMELL OF ANISE.
JAH2 DATA WERE REFERRED TO O. CLAYTONI, DEM DATA TO ONE OR BOTH SPECIES, HUSSAIN ET AL.’S
(1990) DATA TO O. LONGISTYLIS. ALL 1 RATINGS BELOW WERE BASED ON ANETHOLE, COMMON TO BOTH SPECIES.
INDICATIONS (SWEETROOT) — ALACTEA (1; CAN); AMENORRHEA (F; DEM); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BLOAT
(F; DEM); BOIL (F; DEM; FAD); CHILDBIRTH (F; CEB; DEM; FAD); COLD (F; JAH2(2):45); COLIC (F;
ALF); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; FAD); COUGH (F; FAD; JAH2(2):45); CRAMP (1; FNF); DEBILITY (F; DEM;
FAD; JAH2(2):45); DIARRHEA (F; ALF); DISTEMPER (F; DEM); DYSPEPSIA (1; DEM; FNF;
JAH2(2):45); FEVER (F; ALF); FLU (F; JAH2(2):45); FUNGUS (1; JNP49:156); GAS (F; CEB;
JAH2(2):45); GASTROSIS (F; FAD; JAH2(2):45; DEM); HEPATOSIS (1; FNF); INFECTION (1; FNF;
JAH2(2):45); MUCOSOSIS (F; ALF); MYCOSIS (1; JNP49:156); NAUSEA (F; JAH2(2):45); NEPHROSIS
(1; DEM; TOP139:177); OPHTHALMIA (F; CEB; DEM); SORE (F; DEM; FAD); SORE THROAT (F; ALF;
DEM; JAH2(2):45); WOUND (F; DEM; FAD).
OTHER USES (SWEETROOT) — TANAKA (1976) NOTES THAT THE ROOTS AND SHOOTS ARE EATEN AND USED TO
MAKE TEA. FACCIOLA (1998) SAYS ROOTS AND STEMS OF O. CLAYTONII ARE EATEN AS VEGETABLE, AND ROOTS
AND UNRIPE SEEDS USED AS ANISE-LIKE FLAVORINGS. RE O. LONGISTYLIS, HE ADDS THAT LEAVES AND GREEN
SEEDS MAY BE ADDED TO SALADS (FAC). THE DRY SEEDS ARE USED IN CAKES, CANDIES, AND LIQUEURS (FAC).
IN WISCONSIN, THE ROOTS ARE STORED WHOLE, DRY, AND CLEANED, AND SCRAPED BEFORE USING, THEREBY
RETAINING MORE OF THEIR ANETHOLE. THE ANISE FLAVOR IS OFTEN SO STRONG AS TO MAKE IT MORE SPICE THAN
FOOD. WHERE IS THAT ELUSIVE DIVIDING LINE? BUT FOR POSSIBLE CONFUSION BY AMATEURS WITH POISONOUS
MEMBERS OF THE APIACEAE, THIS COULD CLEARLY SERVE AS A FAMINE FOOD. I HAVE ENJOYED IT STEEPED IN
GIN OR VODKA, MAKING A POOR MAN’S ALL-AMERICAN-ANISETTE, IMPROVED WITH A DASH OF LEMON AND
SWEETENER, EVEN A LICORICE SWIRL STICK FOR THOSE AVOIDING SUGAR. ACCORDING TO FOSTER AND DUKE (2000),
THE ROOT OF O. LONGISTYLIS IS EATEN OR SOAKED IN BRANDY. ALFS (2001) ENJOYS NIBBLING ON YOUNG PODS
AND YOUNG STEMS AS WELL. ROOTS ARE EATEN RAW OR COOKED. HE NOTES THAT THE MENOMINEE RELISHED
THE ROOTS, ESPECIALLY FOR FATTENING SLIM PEOPLE. BUT THEY RECOMMENDED SLOW CONSUMPTION—ONLY A
SECTION AT A TIME. OMAHA AND PONCA REPORTEDLY USE THE AROMATIC ROOT TO LURE OR ATTRACT AND CAPTURE
HORSES. POTAWATOMI ADD CHOPPED ROOTS TO OATS OR THE LIKE TO FATTEN THEIR PONIES. CHIPPEWA WASH A
DOG’S NOSTRIL WITH THE AROMATIC ROOT DECOCTION TO IMPROVE THE DOGS POWER OF SCENT (DEM). ROOT
CAN BE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR ASTRAGALUS OR LICORICE, WITH MANY SIMILAR APPLICATIONS (WINSTON,
2001). HUSSAIN ET AL. (1990) SHOWED HOW THIS AND SEVERAL OTHER ANETHOLE-CONTAINING HERBS WERE
USEFUL AS SWEETENERS.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
O
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CULTIVATION (SWEETROOT) — ON MY PROPERTY, THERE ARE AROMATIC AND NON-AROMATIC VARIETIES THAT
ARE NOT DISTINGUISHABLE MORPHOLOGICALLY. SOME OF BOTH ARE HAIRY; OTHERS MORE FREQUENT ARE GLABROUS.
SOME SEEM BIENNIAL, SOME SEEM PERENNIAL. THE LONGSTYLE SWEETROOT, ALIAS HAIRY SWEET CICELY, O.
LONGISTYLIS, HAS RATHER SIMILAR AROMA, MORPHOLOGY, AND UTILITY. OFFHAND, I DOUBT THAT THESE SPECIES
ARE AS DISTINCT AS THE KEYS WOULD MAKE THEM, SPLITTING HAIRS AND MEASURING STYLOPODIA. THEY SEEM
EASY ENOUGH TO TRANSPLANT EVEN IN DECEMBER. I HAVE A SPECIMEN, DUG DECEMBER 3, 2001, FROM
WHICH I REMOVED ENOUGH ROOT AND LEAF MATERIAL FOR CHROMOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS AND THEN REPLANTED
IT. AS A CROP, I SUSPECT IT COULD BE TREATED AS A BIENNIAL, WITH ROOT HARVEST IN LATE FALL. OR PERHAPS
THOSE ENAMORED OF THE LOCAL “ANISE” MIGHT DIG, CUT OFF LATERAL ROOTS, AND REPLANT.
CHEMISTRY (SWEETROOT) — HUSSAIN ET AL. (1990), IN ECONOMIC BOTANY, REPORTED ANALYSES OF SEVEN
ANISE-SCENTED AND/OR ANETHOLE-CONTAINING HERBS. TRANS-ANETHOLE WAS DOMINANT AMONG FIVE OF THE
SEVEN HERBS. THEY FOUND 5700 PPM EO IN THE ROOTS DOMINATED BY ANETHOLE (5440 PPM), MAKING
THIS HIGHEST (ON A PPM BASIS) AMONG THE SEVEN PLANTS THEY ANALYZED. THERE ARE HIGHER HERBS, LIKE
FENNEL SEED, IN MY DATABASE. THEY ATTRIBUTED THE SWEET TASTE OF FENNEL, STAR ANISE, SWEET CICELY, AND
OUR OSMORHHIZA TO ANETHOLE. THEY NOTE THAT TRANS-ANETHOLE, OF WHICH SOME 70 TONS A YEAR WERE
BEING USED IN THE U.S., HAS GRAS STATUS AND IS USED IN BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, CANDIES, AND
CHEWING GUMS IN LEVELS UP TO 1500 PPM. TRANS-ANETHOLE WAS NOT ACUTELY TOXIC FOR MICE AND WAS
NON-MUTAGENIC. IT IS 10–20 TIMES SWEETER THAN SUCROSE (HUSSAIN ET AL., 1990). HERE ARE A FEW OF
THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SWEETROOT. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND
THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND
THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ANETHOLE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTINEPHROTIC; ANTINFKB; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITNF; ANTITUMOR; CARMINATIVE; DERMATITOGENIC; DIGESTIVE;
ESTROGENIC; EXPECTORANT; FUNGICIDE; GASTROSTIMULANT; HEPATOTOXIC 695 MG/KG ORL MUS/DAYS; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; INSECTICIDE; LACTAGOGUE; LEUCOCYTOGENIC; MUTAGENIC; SECRETAGOGUE; SECRETOLYTIC;
SWEETENER (13 × SUCROSE); SYMPATHOMIMETIC; LD50 = 3000 ORL MUS; LD50 = 2090 ORL RAT; LD50
= 900 IPR RAT.
CARENE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; FUNGICIDE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 4800 MG/KG ORL RAT.
LIMONENE — SEE ALSO CARUM CARVI.
TRANS-ANETHOLE — ANTIGENOTOXIC 40–400 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRADICULAR; SWEETENER
(13 × SUCROSE); LD50 = 900 MG/KG IPR RAT; LD50 = 1000 MG/KG IPR MUS; LD50 = 1800–5000 MG/KG
ORL MUS; LD50 = 2000–3000 MG/KG ORL RAT; LD50 = 2100 MG/KG ORL GPG.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
P
PERSEA AMERICANA MILL. (LAURACEAE)
AVOCADO
MEDICINAL USES (AVOCADO) — CONSIDERED ABORTIFACIENT, ANTIFERTILITY, ANTISEPTIC, APERIENT, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, CALMANT, CARMINATIVE, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, PARASITICIDE, PISCICIDE, POISON, RATICIDE, RESOLVENT, RODENTICIDE, RUBEFACIENT, STOMACHIC, SUPPURATIVE, AND VERMIFUGE. FRUIT PULP IS USED
AS AN APHRODISIAC AND EMMENAGOGUE. PULP IS USED FOR TUMORS IN MEXICO. AVOCADO IS USED FOR LABIAL
TUMORS IN PERU. PULVERIZED SEED USED AS A RUBEFACIENT. DECOCTION OF THE SEED USED LOCALLY TO RELIEVE
TOOTHACHE. POWDERED SEED IS USED FOR DANDRUFF. SEED OIL USED FOR SKIN ERUPTIONS. RIND USED AS
VERMIFUGE AND LINIMENT FOR INTERCOSTAL NEURALGIA. FRUIT SKIN CONSIDERED ANTISEPTIC AND IS USED FOR
DYSENTERY AND WORMS. LEAVES ARE CHEWED TO ALLEVIATE PYORRHEA. LEAF POULTICED ONTO WOUNDS; HEATED
LEAVES APPLIED TO FOREHEAD FOR NEURALGIA. LEAF JUICE ALSO CONSIDERED ANTISEPTIC. LEAF DECOCTION TAKEN
FOR DIARRHEA, SORE THROAT, HEMORRHAGE, AND USED TO STIMULATE AND REGULATE MENSTRUATION. DECOCTION
OF THE SHOOTS IS USED FOR COUGH. BOILED LEAVES OR SHOOTS OF PURPLE-SKINNED TYPE ARE USED AS
ABORTIFACIENT (DAD).
AND ON APRIL 10, 2001, AMERICA LOST ITS GREATEST ETHNOBOTANIST, RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES, WHO
SPENT MORE THAN 12 YEARS BOTANIZING IN THE AMAZON BASIN, WHERE SOME OF OUR SPICES OCCUR NATURALLY
(AVOCADO, CACAO, CAPSICUM, CULANTRO, TONKA, AND VANILLA), AND OTHERS ARE SO LONG INTRODUCED AS TO
APPEAR NATIVE (GARLIC, GINGER, LEMONGRASS, AND TURMERIC). LIKE DR. SCHULTES, I LOVE THE AMAZON AND
THE NATIVE AMERICANS THERE. AND, LIKE SCHULTES, I WAS ALWAYS DELIGHTED WHEN NEW SCIENCE TENDED
TO BACK UP SOME OLD FOLKLORE HE HAD PICKED UP IN THE AMAZON. SCHULTES AND RAFFAUF (1990) REPORTED
THAT NATIVE AMERICANS THERE USED THE AVOCADO FOR LIVER PROBLEMS. JAPANESE SCIENTISTS IN 2001
PRODUCED SOME SOLID SCIENCE SINGLING OUT THE AVOCADO AS A FOOD “FARMACEUTICAL” WITH HEPATOPROTECTIVE PROPERTIES. AS MEASURED BY CHANGES IN THE LEVELS OF PLASMA ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT)
AND ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST), AVOCADO SHOWED POTENT HEPATOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITY. FIVE ACTIVE
COMPOUNDS WERE ISOLATED. WE STILL HAVE MUCH TO LEARN ABOUT THE AMAZONIAN FOOD FARMACY
(X11368579).
KIM ET AL. (2000A, 2000B) ISOLATED PERSENONE A FROM THE FRUITS AS AN EFFECTIVE INHIBITOR OF BOTH
NITRIC OXIDE (NO) AND SUPEROXIDE (O2) GENERATION, AT LEAST IN CELL CULTURE SYSTEMS. IT SUPPRESSED
LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE- AND INTERFERON-Y-INDUCED INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE (INOS), AND CYCLOOXYGENASE (COX-2) IN A MOUSE CELL LINE. PERSENONE A (20 ΜM) ALMOST COMPLETELY SUPPRESSED BOTH
INOS AND COX-2 PROTEIN EXPRESSION. IN MOUSE SKIN, DOUBLE TREATMENTS WITH PERSENONE A (810
NMOL) SIGNIFICANTLY SUPPRESSED DOUBLE 12-O-TETRADECANOYLPHORBOL-13-ACETATE (TPA), 8.1 NMOL
APPLICATION-INDUCED HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2) GENERATION. PERSENONE A, AS A COX-2-INHIBITOR
(JAD), COULD HELP PREVENT SUCH INFLAMMATORY DISEASES AS ALZHEIMER’S, ARTHRITIS, AND CANCER, INCLUDING COLON CANCER (X11193428).
STUCKER ET AL. (2001) CONCLUDED THAT VITAMIN B(12) PREPARATION CONTAINING AVOCADO OIL MAY BE
SUITABLE FOR USE IN LONG-TERM THERAPY OF PSORIASIS.
LITTLE ET AL. (2001) EVALUATED THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HERBAL THERAPIES IN OSTEOARTHRITIS. DATA WERE
EXTRACTED INDEPENDENTLY BY THE SAME TWO REVIEWERS. NO SERIOUS SIDE EFFECTS WERE REPORTED.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
INDICATIONS (AVOCADO) — ALOPECIA (F; DAV); ALZHEIMER’S (1; X11193428); AMEBA (F; DAV);
AMENORRHEA (F; JFM; TRA); ANEMIA (F; DAV; JFM); ARTHROSIS (1; X11069724) ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1;
FNF; JNU); BACTERIA (1; FNF; WOI); BLEEDING (F; DAD); BRUISE (F; DAD); CALCULUS (F; DAV);
CANCER (1; JLH; JNU; X11193428); CANCER, COLON (1; X11193428); CANCER, LABIAL (F; JLH); CANCER,
SKIN (1; X11193428); CATARRH (F; DAD; JFM); COLD (1; AAB; FNF; JFM); COUGH (F; AAB; DAD;
JFM); DANDRUFF (F; DAD; DAV); DERMATOSIS (1; DAD; FNF; PH2); DIABETES (1; DAD; DAV; FNF);
DIARRHEA (F; AAB; JFM); DYSENTERY (F; DAV; JFM); DYSMENORRHEA (F; AAB; DAD); DYSPEPSIA (1;
AAB; FNF); ENTEROSIS (F; AAB); ESCHERICHIA (1; WOI); FERTILITY (F; DAV); FEVER (F; AAB; DAD;
JFM); FRIGIDITY (F; JFM); FUNGUS (1; FNF; X10872209); GAS (F; JFM); GOUT (F; JFM); HEADACHE
(1; AAB; FNF; JFM); HEMATOMA (F; DAD); HEMORRHOID (F; JFM); HEPATOSIS (1; DAD; DAV; JFM;
X11368579); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; AAB; DAD; FNF; JFM); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; FNF; JNU);
HIGH TRIGLYCERIDE (1; JNU); ICHTHYOSIS (1; PHR; PH2); IMPOTENCE (F; JFM); INFECTION (1; FNF;
WOI); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; X11193428); MALARIA (F; DAD); METRORRHAGIA (F; DAD); MUCOSOSIS
(F; JFM); MYCOSIS (1; X10872209); NEURALGIA (F; DAD); POOR MILK SUPPLY (1; TRA); PSORIASIS (1;
X11586013); PULMONOSIS (F; DAD); PYORRHEA (F; DAD); RHEUMATISM (F; AAB; DAD; JFM); SCABIES
(F; DAD); SNAKEBITE (F; DAV); SORE THROAT (F; DAD); SPRAIN (F; AAB; DAD); STONE (F; DAV);
TOOTHACHE (F; DAD); WHITLOW (F; JFM); WORM (F; JFM); WOUND (F; DAD).
AVOCADO FOR ATHEROSCLEROSIS:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; ESTRAGOLE; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; SEROTONIN; TYRAMINE
• ANTIANGINAL: CARNITINE
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: LUTEIN; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,2,4-TRIHYDROXYHEPTADECA-16-ENE; ANETHOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENICACID; CYCLOARTENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PINENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTICORONARY: CARNITINE; FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIDIABETIC: PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTIHOMOCYSTINURIC: PYRIDOXINE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIISCHEMIC: CARNITINE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; LUTEIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPLAQUE: FOLIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• ANTISTROKE: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTITHROMBIC: QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST: CAFFEIC-ACID; ESTRAGOLE; METHYL-CHAVICOL
• CARDIOPROTECTIVE: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• CARDIOTONIC: DOPAMINE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• DIURETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DOPAMINE
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CARNITINE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL
• HYPOTENSIVE: PHYLLOQUINONE; QUERCETIN; SUBAPHYLLIN; VALERIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• METAL-CHELATOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• NATRIURETIC: DOPAMINE
• PHOSPHOLIPASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIN-SYNTHESIS-INHIBITOR: P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• SEDATIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; VALERIC-ACID
• VASODILATOR: DOPAMINE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
AVOCADO FOR DERMATOSIS:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; SEROTONIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,2,4-TRIHYDROXYHEPTADECA-16-ENE; ANETHOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENICACID; CYCLOARTENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PINENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIDERMATITIC: BIOTIN; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: ANETHOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; PINENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: ANETHOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYLLOQUINONE;
PINENE; PROPIONIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
AVOCADO FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEBV: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTIENDOTOXIC: SEROTONIN
• ANTIHEPATOSIS: ANETHOLE
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHERPETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; LUTEIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIRADICULAR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; LUTEIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; NONACOSANE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN; SUBAPHYLLIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CHOLAGOGUE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• CHOLERETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTROPIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FOLIC-ACID
• INTERFERONOGENIC: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• PREVITAMIN-A: ALPHA-CAROTENE
• VITAMIN-A-ACTIVITY: ALPHA-CRYPTOXANTHIN; CRYPTOXANTHIN
OTHER USES (AVOCADO) — FRUIT IS HIGHLY NUTRITIOUS AND YIELDS HIGHEST ENERGY VALUE OF ANY FRUIT.
IT IS EATEN FRESH, SEASONED WITH SALT, PEPPER, SUGAR, AND LIME JUICE; USED IN GUACAMOLE, ICE CREAM,
SALADS, SANDWICHES, SOUPS, SPREADS, WITH TORTILLAS, AND MADE INTO WINE (FAC). IN BALI, THE FRUITS ARE
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ADDED TO SUGAR AND WATER TO FORM A POPULAR ICED DRINK KNOWN AS “ES APOKAT” AND ARE MIXED WITH
OTHER FRUITS, CHIPPED ICE, AND BRILLIANT RED SUGAR SYRUP IN THE DESSERT CALLED “ES CAMPUR” (FAC). IT
ALSO FREEZES WELL. PULP YIELDS 3–30% OF OIL, USED IN MOISTURIZING GELS IN COSMETICS. OIL HAS EXCELLENT
KEEPING QUALITY. CRUDE OIL USED AS A DRESSING FOR THE HAIR, WITHOUT REFINING; USED IN MAKING SOAP,
FACE CREAM, HAND LOTION, AND AS A SALAD OIL. THE NON-ALLERGENIC OIL, SIMILAR TO LANOLIN IN ITS PENETRATING
AND SKIN-SOFTENING ACTION, MAY FILTER OUT THE TANNING RAYS OF THE SUN. PULP RESIDUE MAY BE USED AS
STOCK FEED AFTER OIL EXTRACTION. AN INDELIBLE RED-BROWN OR BLACKISH INK, PROVIDED BY THE MILKY FLUID
OF THE SEED, WAS ONCE USED TO WRITE DOCUMENTS AND TO MARK COTTON AND LINEN TEXTILES. LEAF USED AS
A TEA (DAD). LEAVES ARE USED IN BROTHS, STEWS, AND MOLÉS (SAUCES), ESPECIALLY GOOD WITH FISH,
CHICKEN, AND BEANS. THE SOAKED LEAVES ARE USED AS SMOKE FLAVORINGS IN MEXICAN BARBECUES (FAC).
LIGHTLY TOAST AVOCADO LEAVES SLOWLY IN A LOW OVEN OR QUICKLY ON A GRILL. THE LEAVES MAY THEN BE
USED LIKE A BAY LEAF; OR THEY MAY BE GROUND FINE WITH THE OTHER SEASONINGS IN A MOLE, SUCH AS THE
FAMOUS THICK, BLACK, CHOCOLATE MOLE OF OAXACA. LARGER LEAVES USED AS WRAPPERS FOR FOODS TO BE
STEAMED, SUCH AS CHICKEN OR FISH. HOJA SANTA CAN SUBSTITUTE FOR AVOCADO LEAF AND VICE VERSA (AAR).
THE WORSE THE FRUIT, THE MORE FLAVORFUL THE LEAVES. LEAVES CAN BE DRIED AND CAREFULLY STORED FOR UP
TO A YEAR. FLOWERS PROVIDE A DARK, THICK HONEY PRODUCED BY HONEYBEES. WOOD USED FOR CONSTRUCTION,
BOARDS, TURNERY, AND CARVING.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (AVOCADO) — SEEDS ARE VIABLE 2–3 WEEKS AFTER REMOVAL FROM TREE; FOR LONGER PERIODS,
STORE IN DRY PEAT AT 5.5ΟC. DO NOT ALLOW TO DRY OUT. AVOCADOS ARE USUALLY PROPAGATED BY VENEERGRAFTING, SHIELD-BUDDING, AND CLEFT GRAFTS. SEEDS ARE PLANTED IN BOXES, POTS, OR IN OPEN GROUND WITH
POINTED END UPPERMOST AND BARELY COVERED WITH SOIL. TWO TO FOUR MONTHS AFTER PLANTING, WHEN STEMS
ARE 0.6–1.3 CM IN DIAMETER, SEEDLINGS ARE READY FOR BUDDING. BUD WOOD SHOULD BE SELECTED AS RECENT
GROWTH BUT NOT SO SAPPY THAT IT WILL BREAK WHEN BENT. BUDS SHOULD BE CUT SMOOTHLY WITH A VERY
SHARP KNIFE. THE GRAFT IS INSERTED, WRAPPED IN WAXED TAPE OR RAFFIA, LEAVING THE EYE EXPOSED. WHEN
BUD UNITES WITH STOCK, WRAP IS LOOSENED. WHEN BUD SPROUT IS 15 CM OR MORE LONG, THE OLD STOCK
SHOULD BE CUT OFF CLEANLY, CLOSE TO THE BUD. TREES ARE TRANSPLANTED TO ORCHARD AT 9–30 MONTHS, SPACED
6–12 M EACH WAY. CLEAN CULTIVATE OR INTERCROP WITH COVER CROPS. FERTILIZE WHEN YOUNG WITH NITROGEN,
PHOSPHORUS, POTASH, AND MAGNESIUM. AVOCADOS SHOULD BE FERTILIZED FOUR OR FIVE TIMES THE FIRST YEAR
AFTER PLANTING, GIVING THEM 450 G OF FERTILIZER CONTAINING ABOUT 5% NITROGEN, 6–7% PHOSPHORIC ACID,
AND 3–4% POTASH, AND INCREASED TO 900 G THE SECOND YEAR. FULL BEARING, THEY SHOULD RECEIVE FROM
18–27 KG ANNUALLY. IT IS DIFFICULT TO OVERFEED AN AVOCADO. VEGETATIVELY PROPAGATED TREES BEGIN TO
BEAR FRUIT IN 3–4 YEARS BUT TEND TO BEAR BIANNUALLY. YIELDS ARE VARIABLE, 100–500 OR MORE FRUITS PER
TREE. ORCHARDS YIELD 6750–13,500 KG/HA.
CHEMISTRY (AVOCADO) — BOWN (2001) NOTES THAT IT IS THE FRUIT RICHEST IN PROTEIN; I NOTE THAT IT IS
THE FRUIT RICHEST IN MUFAS (UP TO 69% OLEIC-ACID). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS
FOUND IN AVOCADO. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
LINOLEIC-ACID — SEE ALSO CERATONIA SILIQUA.
MUFAS — ANEMIAGENIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 21 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 =
21 ΜM; CHOLERETIC 5 ML/MAN; DERMATITIGENIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; PERCUTANEOSTIMULANT; LD50 = 230 IVN MUS; LDLO = 50 IVN CAT.
OLEIC-ACID — SEE ALSO DIPTERYX ODORATA.
PALMITIC-ACID — 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC; HEMOLYTIC; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC;
LUBRICANT; NEMATICIDE; SOAP; LD50 = 57 IVN MUS.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PERSENONE-A — ANTIINFLAMMATORY 20 ΜM; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTITUMOR 20 ΜM; ANTITUMORPROMOTER IC50 = 1.4 ΜM; CHEMOPREVENTIVE; COX-2-INHIBITOR 20 ΜM; NITRIC-OXIDE-INHIBITOR IC50
= 1.2 ΜM; SUPEROXIDE-INHIBITOR.
PUFAS — ANTIACNE; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIMS; ANTIPOLYNEURITIC.
PEUMUS BOLDUS MOLINA (MONIMIACEAE)
BOLDO
SYNONYMS — BOLDEA FRAGRANS (RUIZ & PAV). GAY, PEUMUS FRAGRANS RUIZ & PAV.
MEDICINAL USES (BOLDO) — A SITE WAS FOUND IN MONTE VERDE, CHILE, 10,000 MILES SOUTH OF THE
BERING LAND BRIDGE, WHERE MAN’S REMAINS (I, AND PROBABLY ONLY I, CALL HIM BOLDO MAN) WERE COMINGLED WITH SLABS OF MASTODON MEAT, CLAY-LINED FIRE-PITS, BOLDO LEAVES (TODAY USED FOR GI DISORDERS),
CHEWED REMAINS OF SEAWEEDS (TODAY USED FOR STOMACH DISTRESS), AND 24 MORE MEDICINAL PLANTS, AND
700 STONE TOOLS, INCLUDING BOLO STONES (MAYBE I SHOULD CALL HIM BOLO MAN) USED WITH SLINGS FOR
HUNTING ANIMALS. I SUPPOSE A BIG MASTODON KILL AND MEAT SURFEIT COULD LEAD TO DYSPEPSIA IN THOSE
DAYS. IF BOLDO MAN WAS THERE 12,500 YEARS AGO, THEN HIS ANCESTORS MAY HAVE CROSSED THE BERING
LAND BRIDGE CONSIDERABLY EARLIER THAN THE USUALLY ACCEPTED 12,000 YEARS AGO. ACCORDING TO TIM
FRIEND, USA TODAY, FEBRUARY 11, 1997, “DNA STUDIES OF NATIVE AMERICANS ALSO SUGGEST MIGRATIONS
OCCURRED 20,000 TO 40,000 YEARS AGO. A SITE AT MEADOWCROFT, PENNSYLVANIA IS CARBON DATED AS 19,000
YEARS OLD, BUT THAT DATE REMAINS CONTROVERSIAL.”
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BOLDO, A CHILEAN TREE USED TRADITIONALLY IN FOLK MEDICINE, MAINLY FOR THE TREATMENT OF LIVER
AILMENTS, HAS RECENTLY BEEN THE SUBJECT OF INCREASING ATTENTION. BOLDO IS LISTED IN SEVERAL PHARMACOPOEIA, PERHAPS DUE TO THE ALKALOID BOLDINE. THE EO IS USED MEDICINALLY (AND POSSIBLY DANGEROUSLY)
AS AN ANTHELMINTHIC, BECAUSE IT CONTAINS ASCARIDOLE, A PROVEN ANTHELMINTHIC. CERTAIN AS YET UNNAMED
COMPONENTS OF BOLDO RELAX SMOOTH MUSCLE AND PROLONG INTESTINAL TRANSIT (HAD). BOLDO LEAF AND ITS
PREPARATIONS STIMULATE THE PRODUCTION OF BILE, AND ITS SECRETION FROM THE GALL BLADDER, AND THE
SECRETION OF GASTRIC JUICE. BOILING WATER IS POURED OVER 1–2 G OF THE FINELY CUT DRUG AND STRAINED
AFTER 10 MIN; A CUPFUL IS DRUNK TWO OR THREE TIMES A DAY AS A CHOLERETIC. LOSSES OF 80% OR MORE
OF THE AROMATIC BOLDINE MAY OCCUR. STANDARDIZED PREPARATIONS ARE HENCE PREFERRED. EUROPEAN TESTS
OF HAPATRAN, A TRADEMARKED HYDROALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF THE HERB, REVEALED ITS HEPATOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITY,
PROBABLY INVOLVING BOLDINE, AND A DOSE-RELATED ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY, NOT NECESSARILY INVOLVING
THE BOLDINE (BIS). ALL THIS ANALGESIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, AND URICOSURIC ACTIVITY SUGGESTS STRONGLY TO
ME THAT THIS MIGHT BE CONSIDERED AS A MIXTURE WITH CELERYSEED EXTRACT AS A GOUT PREVENTIVE AND CURE.
BOLDINE ([S]-2,9-DIHYDROXY-1, 10-DIMETHOXYAPORPHINE) IS THE MAJOR ALKALOID FOUND BOTH IN THE
LEAVES AND BARK. IT HAS PRONOUNCED ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL. JANG ET AL. (2000) LOOK TO
IT FOR ANTIDIABETIC POTENTIAL AS WELL. INCREASED OXIDATIVE STRESS MAY LEAD TO PATHOGENESIS AND PROGRESSION
OF DIABETIC TISSUE DAMAGE. BOLDINE ATTENUATES DEVELOPMENT OF HYPERGLYCEMIA AND WEIGHT LOSS STZINDUCED IN RATS. BOLDINE TREATMENT RESTORES ALTERED ENZYME ACTIVITIES IN LIVER AND PANCREAS (BUT NOT
KIDNEY). IT DECOMPOSES SUPEROXIDE ANIONS, HYDROGEN PEROXIDES, AND HYDROXYL RADICALS DOSE-DEPENDENTLY. IT ATTENUATES PRODUCTION OF SUPEROXIDE ANIONS, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, AND NITRIC OXIDE CAUSED BY
LIVER MITOCHONDRIA (JANG ET AL., 2000). JIMENEZ ET AL. (2000) NOTE THAT BOLDINE PREVENTS FREE RADICALINDUCED ERYTHROCYTE LYSIS, PROTECTING INTACT RED CELLS FROM HEMOLYTIC DAMAGE INDUCED BY FREE RADICAL
INITIATORS (2, 2′-AZOBIS-(2-AMIDINOPROPANE) BOLDINE DOSE-DEPENDENTLY PREVENTS LEAKAGE OF HEMOGLOBIN
INTO THE EXTRACELLULAR MEDIUM. IT IS CYTOPROTECTIVE WHETHER ADDED 1 HR PRIOR TO, OR SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH,
THE INDUCER (X10925398). DRIED HYDRO-ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS SHOW HEPATOPROTECTIVE, ANTIEDEMIC, AND
ANTIINFLAMMATORY EFFECTS IN MICE AND RATS. BOLDINE, EXHIBITS A DOSE-DEPENDENT ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY IN THE CARRAGEENAN-INDUCED GUINEA PIG PAW EDEMA TEST (ED50 = 34 MG/KG ORG GPG). BOLDINE ALSO
REDUCES BACTERIAL HYPERTHERMIA IN RABBITS (ED51–98 = 60 MG/KG ORL RBT). BOLDINE EFFECTIVELY INHIBITS
PROSTAGLANDIN BIOSYNTHESIS IC53 = 75 ΜM. BOLDINE HAS MILD DIURETIC, URIC-ACID EXCRETORY (PERHAPS
USEFUL IN GOUT, JAD), AND WEAK HYPNOTIC EFFECTS. INJECTED BOLDINE PARALYZES BOTH MOTOR AND SENSORY
NERVES AND MUSCLE FIBERS. STILL, IT IS USED VETERINARIALLY FOR JAUNDICE.
INDICATIONS (BOLDO) — AGING (1; APA); ANOREXIA (2; PHR); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (1; APA; FNF);
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE (1; APA); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BILIOUSNESS (2; APA; CAN; SHT); CANCER (1;
APA; FNF); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; BGB; CAN; HHB); CHOLELITHIASIS (1; CAN; HHB); COLD (F; CRC);
COUGH (F; CRC); CRAMP (2; APA; BRU; FNF; KOM; SHT); CYSTOSIS (1; CAN; PNC); DIABETES
(1; X10987997); DYSPEPSIA (2; APA; BGB; BRU; FNF; KOM; PH2); EARACHE (F; CRC); ENTEROSIS
(2; APA; BOW; KOM); GALLSTONE (1; BOW; CAN; HHB; PNC); GASTROSIS (2; CRC; KOM);
GONORRHEA (1; CAN; GMH; HHB); GOUT (F; APA; BGB; CRC); HEAD COLD (F; CRC); HEARTBURN
(F; BGB; BRU); HEPATOSIS (2; APA; CAN; CRC; FNF; HHB; PHR); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1;
X10987997); HYPERTONIA (2; KOM); INFECTION (1; CAN; CRC; EFS; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; APA;
FNF); INSOMNIA (F; APA; CAN; EFS); JAUNDICE (F; CRC; GMH); LETHARGY (F; EFS); NEPHROSIS (F;
BGB); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); OBESITY (F; BOW; PNC); PAIN (1; BGB; FNF); PARASITE (1; BOW);
PROSTATOSIS (F; BGB); RHEUMATISM (F; APA; BGB; CAN); STOMACHACHE (1; APA); STONE (1; BRU);
SYPHILIS (F; CRC; HHB); UROGENITOSIS (F; GMH); UTI (1; BOW); VD (F; CRC; HHB); WATER
RETENTION (1; APA; BGB; CAN; FNF); WORM (1; APA; CRC); WOUND (F; CRC).
BOLDO FOR ATHEROSCLEROSIS:
• ANTIADRENERGIC: ISOCORYDINE
• ANTIAGGREGANT: COUMARIN; EUGENOL; THYMOL
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: CARVACROL; THYMOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ALPHA-THUJONE; BENZALDEHYDE;
BETA-THUJONE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CARVACROL; CUMINALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; ISORHAMNETIN;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL; P-CYMENE; RETICULINE; TERPINEN-4-OL; THYMOL
• ANTIEDEMIC: BOLDINE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE; CARVACROL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL;
GUAIAZULENE; ISORHAMNETIN; SINOACUTINE; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: BOLDINE; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISORHAMNETIN;
METHYL-EUGENOL; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
• ANTIOXIDANT (LDL): CARVACROL; THYMOL
• ANTIPLAQUE: CARVACROL; THYMOL
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• BACTERISTAT: COUMARIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• BETA-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKER: BOLDINE
• CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST: EUGENOL
• CARDIOTONIC: COUMARIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; THYMOL
• DIURETIC: BOLDINE; SPARTEINE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• HYPOTENSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZYL-BENZOATE
• PROSTAGLANDIN-SYNTHESIS-INHIBITOR: BOLDINE; EUGENOL
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ASCARIDOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNYLACETATE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FARNESOL; GERANIOL; ISOCORYDINE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; NEROL; NORISOCORYDINE; P-CYMENE; THYMOL
BOLDO FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: ASCARIDOLE; CAMPHOR; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; P-CYMENE; RETICULINE; THYMOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; PRONUCIFERINE; THYMOL
• ANTIEMETIC: CAMPHOR
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE; CARVACROL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL;
GUAIAZULENE; ISORHAMNETIN; SINOACUTINE; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: BOLDINE; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISORHAMNETIN;
METHYL-EUGENOL; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
• ANTIPEPTIC: BENZALDEHYDE; GUAIAZULENE
• ANTIULCER: EUGENOL; GUAIAZULENE
• CARMINATIVE: ASCARIDOLE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; THYMOL; THYMYL-ACETATE
• GASTROSTIMULANT: BOLDINE
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; ASCARIDOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNYLACETATE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FARNESOL; GERANIOL; ISOCORYDINE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; NEROL; NORISOCORYDINE; P-CYMENE; THYMOL
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
BOLDO FOR HEPATOSIS:
• ANTIEDEMIC: BOLDINE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL
• ANTIHEPATOSIS: BOLDINE
• ANTIHERPETIC: THYMOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE; CARVACROL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL;
GUAIAZULENE; ISORHAMNETIN; SINOACUTINE; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIOXIDANT: BOLDINE; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISORHAMNETIN;
METHYL-EUGENOL; SPARTEINE; THYMOL
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: SPARTEINE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CARVACROL; EUGENOL
• ANTIRADICULAR: BOLDINE; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; THYMOL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CHOLERETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BOLDINE; EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; THYMOL
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BOLDINE; EUGENOL; ISORHAMNETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: BENZALDEHYDE; COUMARIN
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: COUMARIN
OTHER USES (BOLDO) — THE SWEET, AROMATIC FRUITS ARE EATEN. LEAVES AND THE BARK USED AS A SPICE
IN CHILE (FAC). IT LOOKS A LITTLE IFFY TO ME, THOUGH APPROVED BY COMMISSION E. IT IS LISTED BY
THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE AS A NATURAL SOURCE OF FOOD FLAVORING. CATEGORY N3 IMPLIES THAT BOLDO CAN
BE ADDED TO FOODSTUFFS “IN THE TRADITIONALLY ACCEPTED MANNER, ALTHOUGH INSUFFICIENT INFORMATION
IS AVAILABLE FOR AN ADEQUATE ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL TOXICITY” (CAN). THE EO, LIKE THAT OF
ASCARIDOLE-CONTAINING WORMSEED (CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIOIDES), IS USED IN THE FOOD AND LIQUEUR
INDUSTRIES AS A FLAVORING (MIRALDI ET AL., 1996). WHILE I HAVE CONSUMED THE TEA, WITH MODEST
PLEASURE, IN CHILE, I CAN’T ENDORSE IT—A LITTLE NERVOUS ABOUT THE CAMPHOR AND MORE NERVOUS ABOUT
THE ASCARIDOLE AND THUJONE. BOLDO THE HERB, WITH UP TO 1.1% OF THE ENDOPEROXIDE, ASCARIDOLE, HAS
BEEN APPROVED FOR CERTAIN INDICATIONS BY BOTH THE BRITISH (CAN, PNC) AND GERMAN (KOM, PHR)
HERBAL GURUS, WHILE OUR WORMSEED, ALIAS EPASOTE, CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIOIDES, WAS EXCLUDED.
WITH UP TO 1.8% ASCARIDOLE, WORMSEED HAS LARGELY FALLEN BY THE WAYSIDE. I’LL WAGER A CASE OF
BEANO THAT BOLDO WOULD DO TWO-THIRDS AS WELL AS THE WORMSEED, KNOWN TO LATINOS AS EPAZOTE, AT
PREVENTING THE GAS OF BEAN DISHES (JAD). BARK IS USED FOR TANNING AND DYEING FIBERS. THE WOOD
USED FOR CHARCOAL (GMH).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (BOLDO) — THE CHILEAN TREE (EXPORTS 1000 TONS DRY LEAVES PER YEAR) WAS INTRODUCED
TO EUROPE CA. 1870. IT IS THRIVING IN CALIFORNIA AND TEMPERATE FROST-FREE ZONES ELSEWHERE. ACCORDING
TO BOWN (2001), THE SHRUB OR SMALL TREE DOES WELL, SOWN BY SEED IN SPRING, OR BY SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS
IN SUMMER, IN ACID, SANDY, SUNNY, WELL-DRAINED SOILS, ZONE 9. LEAVES ARE HARVESTED DURING THE
GROWING SEASON. BARK MAY BE COLLECTED FOR ALKALOID EXTRACTION.
CHEMISTRY (BOLDO) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN BOLDO. FOR A COMPLETE
LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE
AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ASCARIDOLE — ANALGESIC; ANCYLOSTOMICIDE; CARCINOGENIC; CARMINATIVE; FUNGICIDE; NEMATICIDE;
SEDATIVE; VERMIFUGE; LDLO = 250 ORL RAT.
BOLDINE — ABORTIFACIENT; ANTIEDEMIC ED50 = 34 MG/KG; ANTIHEPATOSIS; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ED50
= 34 MG/KG; ANTILITHIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = 17–33 ΜG/ML; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC53 = 75 ΜM;
ANTIPYRETIC ED51–98 = 60 MG/KG ORL RBT; ANTIRADICULAR; BETA-BLOCKER 0.1 ΜM; CHOLERETIC; CONVULSANT; DIURETIC; GASTROSTIMULANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HYPNOTIC; IMMUNOMODULATOR; MYORELAXANT;
NEUROLEPTIC; TERATOGENIC; URICOSURIC.
LAUROTETANINE — CURAROID.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PIMENTA DIOICA (L.) MERR. (MYRTACEAE)
ALLSPICE, CLOVE PEPPER, JAMAICA PEPPER, PIMIENTA, PIMENTO
SYNONYMS — MYRTUS DIOICA L., M. PIMENTA L., PIMENTA OFFICINALIS LINDL., P. PIMENTA (L.) H.
KARST., P. VULGARIS LINDL.
MEDICINAL USES (ALLSPICE) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIOXIDANT, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, FUNGICIDAL, STIMULANT, AND STOMACHIC. JAMAICANS TAKE THE FRUIT DECOCTION FOR COLDS, MENORRHAGIA, AND STOMACHACHE. COSTA RICANS TAKE THE LEAF INFUSION AS A CARMINATIVE AND STOMACHIC,
USEFUL FOR DIABETES. GUATEMALANS APPLY IT EXTERNALLY FOR BRUISES AND RHEUMATIC PAIN. CUBANS DRINK
THE REFRESHING TEA AS DEPURATIVE, STIMULANT, AND TONIC. I WAS PLEASED AND SURPRISED TO FIND THE LATE
PROF. VARRO TYLER RATIONALIZING ALLSPICE FOR ATHLETE’S FOOT IN PREVENTION (APR. 2000). DR. TYLER RIGHTLY
NOTED THAT ALLSPICE OIL MAY CONTAIN 70% OF THE FUNGICIDE EUGENOL. “EUGENOL HAS BOTH ANALGESIC AND
ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES. IT COULD POSSIBLY INHIBIT THE GROWTH OF ATHLETE’S FOOT FUNGUS,” DR. TYLER IS
QUOTED AS SAYING. HE SUGGESTED TOPICAL APPLICATION, SPRINKLING GROUND ALLSPICE ON THE TOES. ALLSPICE
IS LOADED WITH EUGENOL, AND, PERHAPS MORE IMPORTANTLY, OTHER ANTISEPTIC AND FUNGICIDAL COMPOUNDS,
E.G., 1,8-CINEOLE, ALPHA-TERPINEOL, AROMADENDRENE, ASCORBIC-ACID, BETA-PINENE, CHAVICOL, CINNAMALDEHYDE, EUGENOL, HEXANOL, LIMONENE, LINALOOL, METHYL-EUGENOL, MYRCENE, P-CYMENE, PROANTHOCYANIDINS, SELENIUM, TERPINEN-4-OL, AND TERPINOLENE WITH LIMONENE CLASSIFIED AS FUNGISTATIC.
EUGENOL, THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENT OF LEAVES AND FRUITS, IS TOXIC IN LARGE QUANTITIES AND CAUSES
CONTACT DERMATITIS. ALLSPICE ITSELF IS IRRITANT TO THE SKIN. RINZLER (1990) REPORTS A STUDY OF 408 ECZEMA
PATIENTS, IN WHICH 19 REACTED POSITIVELY TO ALLSPICE PATCH TESTS (RIN).
INDICATIONS (ALLSPICE) — ARTHROSIS (1; RIN); ATHLETE’S FOOT (1; AAB; FNF); BACTERIA (1; APA;
FNF); BRUISE (F; CRC); COLD (F; CRC); COLIC (1; APA); CONVULSION (1; APA; FNF); CORN (F; CRC;
JLH); CRAMP (1; AAB; APA; FNF); DIABETES (F; CRC; JFM); DIARRHEA (F; APA); DYSMENORRHEA
(1; AAB; CRC; JFM); DYSPEPSIA (1; AAB; APA; CRC; FNF); ENTEROSIS (F; APA); EXHAUSTION (1;
AAB); FEVER (F; JFM); FUNGUS (1; APA; FNF); GAS (1; AAB; APA; CRC); GINGIVOSIS (1; APA);
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; ABS; FNF); INFECTION (1; APA; FNF); MYCOSIS (1; AAB; FNF); MYOSIS
(1; APA); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEURALGIA (F; CRC); NEURASTHENIA (F; BOW); PAIN (1; AAB; APA;
CRC; FNF); PARASITE (1; APA); PULMONOSIS (F; BOW); RHEUMATISM (1; AAB; CRC; FNF); STOMACHACHE (1; APA; CRC); STOMATOSIS (1; APA); TOOTHACHE (1; APA); VAGINOSIS (1; APA); VIRUS (1;
FNF); VOMITING (1; APA; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); YEAST (1; APA).
ALLSPICE FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; ISOEUGENOL; SALICYLATES
• ANTIOXIDANT: EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; METHYL-EUGENOL;
MYRCENE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISTROKE: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• CARDIOPROTECTIVE: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• CARDIOTONIC: QUERCITRIN
• DIURETIC: ISOQUERCITRIN; QUERCITRIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• HYPOTENSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; QUERCITRIN
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE;
EUGENOL; GERANYL-ACETATE; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; P-CYMENE
• VASODILATOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE; PROANTHOCYANIDINS
ALLSPICE FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; EUGENOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYLEUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCITRIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; EUGENOL; QUERCITRIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AROMADENDRENE; BETA-PINENE; EUGENOL; HEXANOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-BENZOATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE;
PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN
• BACTERISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; MALIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHAVICOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE;
P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
ALLSPICE FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; DELTA-3-CARENE; EUGENOL; QUERCITRIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: EUGENOL
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; QUERCITRIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• COLLAGENASE-INHIBITOR: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• ELASTASE-INHIBITOR: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER; METHYL-EUGENOL
OTHER USES (ALLSPICE) — ALLSPICE OF COMMERCE IS THE DRIED UNRIPE FRUIT, USED AS A CONDIMENT; IN
BAKED GOODS, CHUTNEY, ICE CREAM, KETCHUP, MIXED SPICES, PICKLES, SAUCES, SOUPS; AND IN FLAVORING
SAUSAGES AND CURING MEATS. ALLSPICE POWDER CONSISTS OF WHOLE GROUND DRIED FRUIT. IT’S CALLED
“ALLSPICE” BECAUSE IT SUPPOSEDLY EMBRACES THE AROMAS OF CINNAMON, CLOVES, AND NUTMEG. TO MAKE
AN ALLSPICE SUBSTITUTE, MERELY COMBINE ONE PART NUTMEG, TWO PARTS CINNAMON, AND TWO PARTS CLOVE
(RIN). MEXICAN INDIANS USED ALLSPICE TO FLAVOR CHOCOLATE. I USE IT TO FLAVOR EGGNOG. ALLSPICE IS AN
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT OF THE RUBS AND MARINADES USED IN SEASONING JAMAICAN JERKED FOODS, WHICH ARE
ALSO FLAVORED BY THE SMOKE OF PIMENTO WOOD FIRES (FAC). IN JAMAICA, A LOCAL DRINK CALLED “PIMENTO
DRAM” IS MADE OF RIPE FRUITS AND RUM. IT IS REGARDED AS A PANACEA. ALLSPICE IS USED IN SUCH LIQUEURS
AS BENEDICTINE AND CHARTREUSE. A VOLATILE OIL, EXTRACTED FROM THE SPICE AND LEAVES, IS USED TO FLAVOR
ESSENCES AND PERFUMES AND AS A SOURCE OF EUGENOL AND VANILLIN. THE OIL IS ALSO USED IN FLAVORING
BEVERAGES, CANDIES, CHEWING GUMS, LIQUEURS, MEATS AND SAUCES, AND IN ASIAN PERFUMERY AND SHAVING
LOTIONS. BAHAMIANS MAKE A PLEASING TEA FROM THE LEAVES. COSTA RICANS USE THE LEAVES AS A SPICE.
MANY ETHNIC GROUPS USE THE LEAVES IN TEA. SAPLINGS ARE USED AS WALKING STICKS AND UMBRELLA HANDLES
(DAD, FAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (ALLSPICE) — FRESH SEEDS GERMINATE READILY BUT LOSE VIABILITY QUICKLY. SEEDS EXTRACTED
FROM FRUITS ARE PLANTED IN NURSERY BEDS WITH 50% SHADE. SEEDLINGS TRANSPLANTED TO POTS AT THE TWOTO FOUR-LEAF STAGE AND OUTPLANTED WHEN 30–40 CM HIGH (CA. 10 MONTHS OLD). ALLSPICE MAY ALSO BE
PROPAGATED BY BUD PROPAGATION, WHICH PERMITS CLONAL FEMALE TREES TO PREDOMINATE, WITH FEW MALE
TREES AS POLLINATORS. ALLSPICE MAY BE INTERCROPPED WITH BANANA OR OTHER CROPS FOR 5 YEARS AND THEN
REMOVED. BOWN (2001) RECOMMENDS RICH, SANDY, SUNNY, WELL-DRAINED SOILS, ZONE 10, MIN. TEMP.
15–18°C (59–64°F). NITROGENOUS MANURING IS PARTICULARLY FAVORABLE FOR HEAVY LEAF CROP. A MIXTURE
OF 10:10:10, CA. 100 G/TREE, TWICE A YEAR, IS REASONABLE FERTILIZATION FOR YOUNG TREES, WITH UP TO
NEARLY 2.5 KG/TREE FOR TREES OVER 10 YEARS OLD. FOR BERRY PRODUCTION, PLANTS SHOULD BE SPACED 8–10
M APART EACH WAY; IF GROWN FOR LEAF OIL, THEY MAY BE PLANTED MUCH CLOSER (2 M) AND TRIMMED TO
BUSH SIZE. IT IS NOT ADVISABLE TO HARVEST BERRIES AND LEAVES FROM THE SAME TREE. TREES MAY BE PLANTED
IN PASTURES BUT MUST BE PROTECTED AND WEEDED. TREES SHOULD BE TRAINED LOW AND SPREADING. FRUITS
RIPEN 3–4 MONTHS AFTER FLOWERING (DAD). FRUITS SHOULD BE HARVESTED AT FULL SIZE, BUT NOT RIPE (CA.
3–4 MONTHS AFTER FLOWERING). THEY LOSE AROMA WHEN MATURE. TREES CAN BEAR AT AGE 5–8 (–12) YEARS
BUT ARE NOT FULLY PRODUCING UNTIL 20–25 YEARS. THEY CONTINUE FOR SEVERAL MORE YEARS. TWIGS WITH
BERRIES ARE BROKEN OFF BY HAND AND THE BERRIES STRIPPED OFF, SUN-DRIED FOR 7–10 DAYS, AND WINNOWED.
AN AVERAGE YIELD IS ABOUT 1 KG OF DRIED BERRIES PER TREE/YEAR. YIELDS FLUCTUATE, WITH A GOOD CROP
EVERY 3 YEARS. TREES 10–15 YEARS OLD MAY YIELD 0.9–25 KG/YEAR. MATURE TREES AT TIMES YIELD 70 KG
OF GREEN BERRIES, BUT THIS IS HIGHER THAN ONE SHOULD EXPECT (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (ALLSPICE) — PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981) GIVE A LONG TABULAR COMPARISON OF THE BERRY AND
LEAF OILS. TUCKER ET AL. (2000) CHARACTERIZE THE LEAF OIL AS PRINCIPALLY COMPOSED OF EUGENOL
(0.9–83.5%), METHYL EUGENOL (0.1–84.9%), AND MYRCENE (0.2–14.0%). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE
NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ALLSPICE. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES,
SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CHAVICOL — FUNGICIDE; NEMATICIDE.
EUGENOL — ADI = 2.5 MG/KG; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC 200–400; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 0.3 ΜM;
ANTIARACHIDONATE; ANTIBACTERIAL MBC = 400 ΜG/ML, 500 PPM; ANTICANCER; ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIGENOTOXIC 50–500 MG/KG ORL MUS; ANTIHERPETIC IC50 = 16.2–25.6 ΜG/ML;
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ANTIINFLAMMATORY 11 ΜM, IC~97 = 1000 ΜM; ANTIKERATOTIC IC50 = 16.2–25.6 ΜG/ML; ANTIMITOTIC;
ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSATING; ANTIOXIDANT 10 ΜM, IC65 = 30 PPM; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN 11 ΜM,
IC50 = 9.2 MM; ANTIPYRETIC 3 ML/MAN/DAY; ANTIRADICULAR EC50 = 2 ΜL/L; ANTISALMONELLA MIC =
400 ΜG/ML; ANTISEPTIC 400 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITHROMBOXANE; ANTI-TNF; ANTITUMOR; ANTIULCER; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 16.2–25.6 ΜG/ML; APIFUGE; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST IC50 = 224 ΜM; CANDIDICIDE; CARCINOGEN; CARMINATIVE; CHOLERETIC; CNS-DEPRESSANT; COX-1-INHIBITOR IC97 = 1000
ΜM; COX-2-INHIBITOR IC > 97 = 1000 ΜM; CYTOCHROME-P450-INHIBITOR; CYTOTOXIC 25 ΜG/ML;
DERMATITIGENIC; ENTERORELAXANT; FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTIVE 100 PPM; HERBICIDE; INSECTIFUGE;
INSECTICIDE; IRRITANT; JUVABIONAL; LARVICIDE; MOTOR-DEPRESSANT; NEMATICIDE MLC = 2000 ΜG/ML;
NEUROTOXIC; SEDATIVE; TRICHOMONICIDE LD100 = 300 ΜG/ML; TRICHOMONISTAT IC50 = 10 ΜG/ML;
TRYPSIN-ENHANCER; ULCEROGENIC; VASODILATOR; VERMIFUGE; LD50 = 2680 ORL RAT; LD50 = 3000 ORL
MUS; LDLO = 500 ORL RAT.
METHYLEUGENOL — ANESTHETIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIDOTE (STRYCHINE);
ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIOXIDANT EC50 = 100 ΜL/L; ANTIRADICULAR EC50 = 100 ΜL/L; ANTISEPTIC; CARCINOGENIC; FUNGICIDE; FUNGISTATIC 100 ΜG/ML; INSECTIFUGE; MYORELAXANT; NARCOTIC; NEMATICIDE MLC
= 1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE.
PIMENTA RACEMOSA (MILL.) J. W. MOORE (MYRTACEAE)
BAYRUM TREE, WEST INDIAN BAY
MEDICINAL USES (BAYRUM TREE) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, ANTISEPTIC, CARMINATIVE, DIGESTIVE,
EXPECTORANT, AND STOMACHIC. CUBANS DECOCT FOUR SEED IN A CUP OF WATER AS A STIMULANT.
BAHAMIANS DRINK THE HOT LEAF TEA AS A STIMULANT, USING THE COOLED TEA AS A SKIN BRACER. JAMAICANS
TAKE THE TEA FOR COLD AND FEVER; GRENADANS FOR DIARRHEA; TRINIDAD NATIVES FOR CHEST COLDS, FLU,
PNEUMONIA, AND STROKE. LEAVES ARE PASTED WITH MACERATED LEAVES OF CAESALPINIA CORIARIA TO
RELIEVE TOOTHACHE.
ACCORDING TO TEISSEDRE AND WATERHOUSE (2000), THE EO OF P. RACEMOSA INHIBITED LDL
OXIDATION (IC71 = 2 ΜM; IC94 = 5 ΜM). THAT’S CLOSE TO TOPS IN THEIR SURVEY OF 23 EOS. THEY
FIRST ASSESSED EOS AS ANTIBACTERIAL AND ANTIFUNGAL, SECOND AS FLAVORANTS AND PRESERVATIVES IN
FOODS, AND THIRD AS COSMETICS, FOR THEIR AROMATIC AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES. IN THEIR SURVEY OF
23 EOS, STAR ANISE WAS MOST POTENT (IC83 = 2 ΜM) AND SPANISH RED THYME (THYMUS ZYGIS)
LEAST POTENT (JAF4:3801).
INDICATIONS (BAYRUM TREE) — ADENOSIS (F; CRC); ALOPECIA (F; BOW); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF; JFM);
BACTERIA (1; FNF); BITE (F; CRC); BRUISE (F; CRC); CANCER (F; CRC); CANCER, BREAST (F; JLH);
CANCER, UTERUS (F; JLH); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CARIES (1; FNF); CHEST COLD (F; CRC; JFM); CHILL (F;
BOW); COLD (F; CRC); CRAMP (1; FNF); DANDRUFF (F; BOW); DERMATOSIS (F; JFM); DIARRHEA (F;
CRC; JFM); DYSPEPSIA (F; CRC); DYSURIA (F; CRC; JFM); EDEMA (F; CRC); ELEPHANTIASIS (F; CRC);
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FEVER (F; CRC; JFM); FLU (F; CRC; JFM); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GAS (F; JFM); GRIPPE (1; FNF; JFM);
HEADACHE (F; CRC); INCONTINENCE (F; CRC); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; CRC; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); LETHARGY (F; JFM); MYCOSIS (1; FNF); MYOSIS (1; FNF; JFM); NAUSEA (F; CRC);
NEURALGIA (F; BOW); NICOTINISM (F; JFM); PAIN (1; FNF; JFM); PLEURISY (F; CRC; JFM); PNEUMONIA
(F; CRC; JFM); RHEUMATISM (1; FNF; JFM); SCIRRHUS (F; JLH); SMOKING (F; CRC; JFM); SORE
THROAT (F; CRC); SPASM (1; CRC; FNF); STROKE (F; CRC; JFM); TOOTHACHE (1; CRC; FNF; JFM);
TUMOR (F; JLH); UTEROSIS (F; JLH); VARICOSIS (F; CRC); VERTIGO (F; CRC); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER
RETENTION (1; FNF).
BAYRUM TREE FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; DELTACADINENE; EUGENOL; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE;
NERAL; NEROL; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; CITRAL; EUGENOL; GERANIOL;
HEXANOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NERYL-ACETATE; P-CYMENE
• BACTERISTAT: ISOEUGENOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE;
CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHAVICOL; CITRAL; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• FUNGISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
BAYRUM TREE FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE;
EUGENOL
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: EUGENOL
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; THUJONE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; THUJONE
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; EUGENOL-METHYL-ETHER; METHYL-EUGENOL
BAYRUM TREE FOR TOOTHACHE:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; DELTACADINENE; EUGENOL; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE;
NERAL; NEROL; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE
• ANTICARIOGENIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE; GERANIOL; LINALOOL
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIOXIDANT: EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; ISOEUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; CITRAL; EUGENOL; GERANIOL;
HEXANOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; NEROL; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• CANDIDICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; BETA-PINENE; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; GERANIOL
• CANDIDISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE;
CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CHAVICOL; CITRAL; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL;
MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• FUNGISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; METHYL-EUGENOL
• VULNERARY: TERPINEN-4-OL
OTHER USES (BAYRUM TREE) — LEAVES DISTILLED FOR THE SPICY BAY OIL, USED IN PERFUMERY AND IN
THE PREPARATION OF BAY RUM. FORMERLY, LEAVES WERE DISTILLED IN RUM AND WATER, NOW OIL IS DISSOLVED
IN ALCOHOL OR, IN DOMINICA, ONLY IN WATER. BAY RUM, WITH SOOTHING AND ANTISEPTIC QUALITIES, IS
ALSO USED IN TOILET PREPARATIONS AND AS A HAIR TONIC. BAY RUM IS OCCASIONALLY DRUNK. OIL ALSO USED
ON A LIMITED SCALE FOR FLAVORING FOODS, CHIEFLY IN TABLE SAUCES. BOTH BARK AND FRUITS USED FOR
FLAVORING IN THE CARIBBEAN, E.G., IN “BLAFF” (A FISH BROTH). A LEAF HELD IN THE MOUTH IS SAID TO
DISCOURAGE SMOKING. THE DRIED GREEN BERRIES HAVE A FLAVOR. WOOD IS MODERATELY HARD AND HEAVY,
WITH A FINE COMPACT TEXTURE.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (BAYRUM TREE) — MUCH AS IN ALLSPICE. BOWN (2001) RECOMMENDS RICH, SANDY, SUNNY,
WELL-DRAINED SOILS, ZONE 10, MIN. TEMP. 15–18° C (59–64° F). PROPAGATED BY SEEDS SOWN WHEN
RIPE, OR SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS IN SUMMER (BOW).
CHEMISTRY (BAYRUM TREE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN BAYRUM TREE.
FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CHRYSANTHENONE — DENTIFRICE (TOBACCO-STAIN REMOVER).
ESTRAGOLE — ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 320 ΜM; ANTICANCER; ANTIPYRETIC; CARCINOGENIC 4.4 ΜM/15 MOS
SCU MUS; DNA-BINDER; HEPATOCARCINOGENIC 0.23–0.46% DIET/12MOS; INSECTICIDE; INSECTIFUGE;
MUTAGENIC; LD50 = 1250 ORL MUS; LD50 = 1820 ORL RAT.
EUGENOL — SEE ALSO PIMENTA DIOICA.
METHYL-EUGENOL — SEE ALSO PIMENTA DIOICA.
THUJONE — ABORTIFACIENT; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.127 MG/ML; CEREBRODEPRESSANT; CONVULSANT 40 MG/KG; COUNTERIRRITANT; EMMENAGOGUE; EPILEPTIGENIC; HALLUCINOGENIC; HERBICIDE IC50 = 22 MM; NEUROTOXIC; RESPIRAINHIBITOR; TOXIC; VERMIFUGE; LD50 = 395
MG/KG ORL GPG; LD50 = 192 MG/KG ORL RAT; LD50 = 230 MG/KG ORL MUS; LD50 = 140 MG/KG IPR
RAT; LDLO = 120 IPR RAT; LD50 = 73–134 SCU MUS.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PIPER AURITUM KUNTH. (PIPERACEAE)
ANISILLO, HOJA SANTA
MEDICINAL USES (HOJA SANTA) — HALF SPICE, HALF MEDICINE, THE AROMATIC LEAVES ARE WIDELY USED.
THE LEAF DECOCTION IS USED AS A DIAPHORETIC, DIURETIC, EMOLLIENT, AND STIMULANT. EXTRACTS OF THE LEAVES
ARE ANESTHETIC, MAKING THE TOPICAL APPLICATION RATIONAL FOR SUNDRY ACHES AND PAINS. IN COSTA RICA,
OUR GUIDES AND ECOTOURISTS APPLY THE LEAF TO HEADACHE, MUCH AS IS DONE WITH POTHOMORPHE PELTATA.
BOTH WORK. WARMED LEAVES ARE APPLIED TO INFLAMMATIONS. LEAVES HEATED IN ALMOND OIL ARE APPLIED
OVER THE LIVER FOR COLIC (JFM). LEAF TEA AND/OR PULVERIZED SEED IS USED TO SETTLE THE STOMACH, E.G.,
THE TEA FROM HALF A LEAF IS TAKEN AFTER EATING, ALMOST LIKE A DIGESTIVE AFTER-DINNER MINT. IN NICARAGUA,
THE LEAF INFUSION AND JUICE ARE ADMINISTERED ORALLY OR TOPICALLY FOR ACHES AND PAINS, CHILDBIRTH AND
PREGNANCY, FEVER, DIGESTIVE DISORDERS, AND BURNS.
THE TRAMIL COMMISSION (IN MY OPINION, THE CARIBBEAN EQUIVALENT OF GERMANY’S COMMISSION
E) MENTIONS THAT THE TEA IS USED FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE BUT WARNS OF THE TOXICITY OF THE AROMATIC
INGREDIENT SAFROLE. SAFROLE AND ELEMICIN MAY EXERT HALLUCINOGENIC AND/OR PSYCHOTROPIC ACTIVITIES
(TRA). AT 0.1 ML/KG INTRAVENOUSLY IN DOGS, THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT IS HYPOTENSIVE (TRA). THE 95%
ETHANOLIC EXTRACT AT 0.33 ML/L IS SPASMOGENIC AND UTEROTONIC IN VITRO (TRA). AT 3 ML/L, THE AQUEOUS
EXTRACTS HAVE A VASODILATOR EFFECT ON LAB RATS (TRA). MYRCENE HAS ANESTHETIC ACTIVITIES. AS A ALPHA2-ADRENERGIC AGONIST, MYRCENE AFFECTS ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE.
INDICATIONS (HOJA SANTA) — ANGINA (1; JFM; FNF); BACTERIA (1; FNF); COLIC (F; JFM); CRAMP
(1; FNF); ERYSIPELAS (F; JFM); FEVER (1; FNF; JFM); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GONORRHEA (F; JFM); GOUT
(F; JFM); HEADACHE (1; FNF; JFM; TRA); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; FNF; TRA); INFECTION (1; FNF);
INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; JFM); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); PAIN (1; FNF; TRA); VD (F; JFM); WATER
RETENTION (1; FNF); WOUND (1; FNF; JFM).
HOJA SANTA FOR HEADACHE:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN;
SAFROLE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENEOXIDE; EUGENOL; MYRISTICIN
• ANTINEURALGIC: CAMPHOR
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
MYRISTICIN
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE
HOJA SANTA FOR WOUND:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN;
SAFROLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; BENZOIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE;
EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; SAFROLE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENEOXIDE; EUGENOL; MYRISTICIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: BENZOIC-ACID; BORNEOL; EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
SAFROLE
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; LIGNANS; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BENZOIC-ACID; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHOR;
CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; TERPINOLENE
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• VULNERARY: BENZOIC-ACID
OTHER USES (HOJA SANTA) — THE LEAVES, WITH FLAVOR AND AROMA (AND CARCINOGEN) OF SASSAFRAS, ARE
USED FRESH FOR SEASONING SOUPS, WILD GAME SUCH AS ARMADILLO, FRESHWATER SNAILS (CALLED “JUTE” IN
GUATEMALA), AND MANY OTHER DISHES (FAC, JAD, JFM). THE LEAVES ARE NOT USED DRIED (AAR). WITH
PLEASANT ANISE FLAVOR WITH MINTY OVERTONES, LEAVES ARE ALSO ARE USED AS WRAPPERS FOR STEAMED OR BAKED
FISH, SHRIMP, CHICKEN, OR CHEESE. FRESH LEAVES ARE WRAPPED AROUND TAMALE DOUGH BEFORE IT IS PACKAGED
IN CORN LEAVES AND STEAMED (FAC). THESE LEAFY WRAPPERS ARE EATEN RIGHT ALONG WITH THE FILLING. DISCARD
THE TOUGH CENTRAL VEIN AND USE THE TWO LARGE PIECES AS WRAPPERS (AAR). IN VERA CRUZ, LEAVES ARE GROUND
WITH CHILES, GARLIC, AND ROAST TOMATOES TO MAKE A FEISTY FISH SAUCE. LEAVES ARE ALSO SAUTEED WITH SHRIMP
AND ROASTED PEPPERS (TAD). OTHER MEXICANS SEASON A MOLE FOR PORK AND SOMETIMES ADD THEM TO POSOLE
VERDE. WITH A BLENDED HOJA SANTA SAUCE, YOU CAN IMPROVE FISH OR CHICKEN. PUREE ONE CUP OF LEAVES AND
ONE-THIRD CUP CHICKEN BROTH; SEASON WITH SALT AND PEPPER, GARLIC, ONIONS, GREEN CHILES. FRY THE SAUCE,
AS THEY DO IN MEXICAN COOKING, WITH A SMALL AMOUNT OF OIL BRINGING TO A BOIL. IN HONDURAS, YOUNG
LEAVES ARE SOMETIMES COOKED AND EATEN AS GREENS. THE NATIVES OF PANAMA TRAP RIVER FISH USING THE LEAVES
AND/OR FRUITS AS BAIT. AFTER FEEDING ON IT REGULARLY, THE FLESH OF THE FISH TAKES ON THE FLAVOR OF THE LEAF.
HENCE, THE PLANT IS RECOMMENDED FOR AQUACULTURE APPLICATIONS IN PARTS OF CENTRAL AMERICA (AAR, FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (HOJA SANTA) — TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000) NOTE THAT IT IS RARELY HARDY ABOVE ZONE
9 IN THE U.S. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS MINIMUM TEMPERATURES OF 10ΟC (50ΟF), SEEDS SOWN AT 20–24ΟC
(66–75ΟF). IT SEEMS TO FARE BEST ON WELL-DRAINED GARDEN LOAM, MOIST BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WET, TOLERATING
SOME SHADE AND FULL SUN. THEY SUGGEST PROPAGATING BY SUMMER CUTTINGS. I TOO HAVE HAD GREAT LUCK
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
(BETTER THAN WITH KAVA-KAVA, WHICH IS NOT SO PLEASANTLY AROMATIC) WITH THIS IN MY GARDEN, BRINGING
IT IN TO THE GREENHOUSE IN WINTER. IT MAKES CUTTINGS READILY. POT BOUND PLANTS MAKE ROOT SPROUTS THAT
CAN BE USED FOR PROPAGATION. IN THE TROPICS, IT CAN FORM PURE STANDS ATTAINING 20 FT IN TWO YEARS,
MUCH LIKE KAVA-KAVA. HARVEST AS NEEDED.
CHEMISTRY (HOJA SANTA) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN HOJA SANTA. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM,
DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
BORNEOL — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANALGESIC; ANTIACETYTLCHOLINE; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 125–250 ΜG/ML;
ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTIESCHERICHIC MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOTITIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISALMONELLA MIC = 125 ΜG/ML; ANTISPASMODIC ED50 = 0.008 MG/ML; ANTISTAPHYLOCOCCIC
MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 250 ΜG/ML; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; CNS-TOXIC; FUNGICIDE; HEPATOPROTECTANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 470 MM; IC50 = 470 ΜM; INHALANT; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT;
MYORELAXANT; NEGATIVE CHRONOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEGATIVE INOTROPIC 29 ΜG/ML; NEMATICIDE MLC =
1 MG/ML; SEDATIVE; TRANQUILIZER; LDLO = 2000 ORL RBT.
ELEMICINE — ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 360 ΜM; ANTIDEPRESSANT IHL; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIHISTAMINIC;
ANTISEROTONIC; ANTISTRESS IHL; DNA-BINDER; FUNGICIDE MIC = 8 ΜG; HALLUCINOGENIC; HYPOTENSIVE
IHL; INSECTICIDE 100 PPM; INSECTIFUGE; LARVICIDE 100 PPM; NEUROTOXIC; SCHISTOSOMICIDE.
EUGENOL — SEE ALSO PIMENTA DIOICA.
MYRCENE — ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC 10–20 MG/KG IPR MUS, 20–40 MG/KG SCU MUS; ANTIBACTERIAL;
ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISPASMODIC; FUNGICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.14 ΜM.
SAFROLE — SEE ALSO SASSAFRAS ALBIDUM.
PIPER NIGRUM L. (PIPERACEAE)
BLACK PEPPER
MEDICINAL USES (BLACK PEPPER) — CONSIDERED ANTIPYRETIC, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, RUBEFACIENT, AND
STIMULANT. MODERN MEDICINE IN INDIA UTILIZES BLACK PEPPER AS AN AROMATIC STIMULANT IN CHOLERA,
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WEAKNESS FOLLOWING FEVERS, VERTIGO, COMA, ETC.; AS A STOMACHIC IN GAS AND INDIGESTION; AS AN ALTERATIVE
IN ARTHRITIC DISEASES AND PARAPLEGIA; AND AS AN ANTIMALARIAL. RINZLER (1990) RATIONALIZES, “BECAUSE
PEPPER IRRITATES MUCOUS MEMBRANES, HIGHLY SPICED FOODS MAY BE BENEFICIAL WHEN YOU HAVE HAY
FEVER OR A HEAD COLD. THE SPICE IRRITATES TISSUES INSIDE YOUR NOSE AND THROAT, CAUSING THEM TO WEEP
A WATER SECRETION THAT MAKES IT EASIER FOR YOU TO COUGH UP MUCUS OR TO BLOW YOUR NOSE” (RIN).
PEPPER ROOT, IN THE FORM OF GHEES, POWDERS, ENEMAS, AND BALMS, IS A FOLK REMEDY FOR ABDOMINAL
TUMORS. CHINESE POULTICE THE LEAVES ONTO HEADACHES AND USE THEM FOR URINARY CALCULUS AS WELL.
POWDERED FRUITS ARE SAID TO ALLEVIATE “SUPERFLUOUS FLESH.” AN ELECTUARY PREPARED FROM THE SEED IS
SAID TO HELP HARD TUMORS, WHILE A SALVE PREPARED FROM THE SEED IS SAID TO HELP EYE INDURATIONS AND
INTERNAL TUMORS. THE GRAIN, WITH WARM WINE AND EGG, IS SAID TO HELP INDURATIONS OF THE STOMACH. A
POULTICE, MADE FROM THE PEPPER, SALT, AND VINEGAR, MAY HELP CORNS. PEPPER IS ALSO POULTICED, LIKE
MUSTARD PLASTERS, FOR COLIC, HEADACHE, PARTURITION, PUERPERIUM, AND RHEUMATISM. A HEAVY DOSE OF
PEPPER WITH WILD BAMBOO SHOOTS IS SAID TO INDUCE ABORTION. ALTHOUGH PEPPER CONTAINS THE CARCINOGEN
SAFROLE, IT IS AT VERY LOW LEVELS COMPARED TO SASSAFRAS.
SOME UNIDENTIFIED COMPOUNDS FROM PEPPER ARE EVEN MORE POTENT THAT PEPPER PHYTOSTEROLS AT
LOWERING CHOLESTEROL, POSSIBLY SOME VIA HMG-COA-REDUCTASE INHIBITION. BLACK PEPPER ALSO SPEEDS
UP TRANSIT THROUGH THE GUT, MORE THAN JUST INCREASING PERISTALSIS. TCM PRACTITIONERS BOIL 1 G BLACK
PEPPER WITH 15 G GINGER 25 MIN IN A LITER OF WATER TO DRINK FOR IDIOPATHIC DIARRHEA. THEY USE BOTH
BLACK AND RED PEPPER FOR FROSTBITE (LIN, 1994). AYURVEDICS OFTEN PRESCRIBE BLACK PEPPER IN A
SYNERGISTIC TRIAD CALLED “TRIKATU” (THREE ACRID SPICES, PIPER NIGRUM, P. LONGUM, AND ZINGIBER OFFICINALE). TRIKATU IS OF GREAT INTEREST, SINCE IT INCREASES THE BIOAVAILABILITY OF OTHER DRUGS. TRIKATU MAY
INCREASE BIOAVAILABILITY EITHER BY (1) PROMOTING ABSORPTION FROM THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, (2)
PROTECTING THE DRUG FROM BEING METABOLIZED/OXIDIZED IN THE FIRST PASSAGE THROUGH THE LIVER AFTER
BEING ABSORBED, (3) A COMBINATION OF THESE TWO MECHANISMS, OR (4) CAUSING INCREASED PRODUCTION
OF BILE. UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF PIPERINE (30 MG/KG), EXPERIMENTAL BLOOD LEVELS OF SPARTEINE WERE
INCREASED BY MORE THAN 100%. IN HUMAN VOLUNTEERS, 20 MG PIPERINE INCREASES BIOAVAILABILITY OF
CURCUMIN TWENTYFOLD (MAB).
ONE PUNGENT PRINCIPLE OF PEPPER IS PIPERINE, PRESENT AT LEVELS OF 2–6%. ACCORDING TO RINZLER
(1990), CHAVICINE, PIPERIDINE, AND PIPERINE ARE ALL DIAPHORETIC (NONE OF THEM WERE IN MY DATABASE
AT HOME AS SUCH) (RIN). LIKE OTHER PUNGENT PRINCIPLES, CAPSAICIN FROM CAPSICUM AND ZINGERONE
(FROM ZINGIBER), PIPERINE IS AN ADRENERGIC SECRETAGOGUE, ENHANCING THE SECRETION OF CATECHOLAMINES,
ESPECIALLY EPINEPHRINE, FROM THE ADRENAL GLAND, THEREBY LEADING TO A WARMING SENSATION. ORAL BLACK
PEPPER, OR PIPERINE, INCREASES THE FLOW OF BILE IN RATS. DESAI AND KALRO (1985) DEMONSTRATED UNDER
THEIR EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS THAT POWDERED BLACK PEPPER DOES NOT DAMAGE THE GASTRIC MUCOSA, BUT
THAT FERULA DOES, BASED ON THE RATE OF EXFOLIATION OF HUMAN GASTRIC MUCOSA SURFACE EPITHELIAL CELLS.
PIPERINE MAY BE USEFUL AS AN ANALEPTIC IN BARBITURATE POISONING. IT HAS A CENTRAL STIMULANT ACTION
IN FROGS, MICE, RATS, AND DOGS. PIPERINE, AT 1 MG/ML, DECREASED THE CONTRACTION OF ISOLATED GUINEA
PIG ILEUM. WHEN INJECTED I.V. INTO DOGS AT 1 MG/KG, IT DECREASED BLOOD PRESSURE AND RESPIRATION RATE.
WHEN GIVEN ORALLY TO RATS AT 100 MG/100 G, IT SHOWED SLIGHT ANTIPYRETIC ACTIVITY. PIPERINE INTERACTS
WITH NITRITE IN VITRO UNDER SLIGHTLY ACIDIC CONDITIONS AT 37° TO FORM CARCINOGENIC NITROSAMINES.
PIPERINE IS A STIMULANT. PIPERINE IS ALSO USED IN SYNTHESIZING HELIOTROPINE, WHICH HAS ITS OWN
MEDICINAL INDICATIONS. PIPERINE SHOULD NOT BE COMBINED WITH ASTRINGENTS, WHICH MAY BE RENDERED
INERT. CURCUMIN AND PIPERINE WERE ALSO CONCLUDED TO BE RADIOPROTECTIVE.
ISOLATED PIPERINE HAS AN INHIBITING EFFECT ON LACTOBACILLUS PLANTARUM, MICROCOCCUS SPECIALIS,
AND TWO FECAL MICRO-ORGANISMS (E. COLI AND STREPTOCOCCUS FAECALIS). IT IS MUTAGENIC WITH LEPTOSPIRA;
WITH LARGE DOSES, A BACTERICIDAL EFFECT IS PRODUCED. PIPERINE INHIBITS THE UBIQUITOUS, DEADLY BACTERIUM
CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM.
AND PIPERINE IS MORE TOXIC TO HOUSEFLIES THAN PYRETHRIN. A MIX OF 0.05% PIPERINE AND 0.01
PYRETHRINS IS MORE TOXIC THAN 0.1% PYRETHRIN (WOI). IT IMPROVES INSECTICIDAL ACTIVITY OF OTHER OILS,
LIKE EUCALYPTUS OIL. PIPERINE IS SYNERGISTICALLY INSECTICIDAL TO RICE WEEVILS AND COWPEA WEEVILS. AS
INSECT REPELLENT, SPRAY WITH 0.5 TSP GROUND PEPPER IN ONE QT WARM WATER (RIN).
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
LIN (1994) HAS SOME NOVEL OBSERVATIONS. MERELY HOLDING 100 MG PEPPER IN THE MOUTH CAUSES
A TRANSIENT INCREASE OF 13 MM HG IN SYSTOLIC, 18 MM HG IN DIASTOLIC PRESSURE. A PARALLEL RESULT HAS
RESULTED FROM CHEWING 1 G GINGER 11 FOR SYSTOLIC, 14 FOR DIASTOLIC (MAB). AQUEOUS LEAF EXTRACT
RAISED BLOOD PRESSURE IN DOGS MODESTLY (NOT STATED WHETHER ORAL OR INJECTED) (MPI).
THE EO REPORTEDLY INHIBITS ALTERNARIA ORYZAE, A. TENUIS, ASPERGILLUS ORYZAE, BEAUVERIA SP.,
CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS, FUSARIUM SOLANI, HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM, MICROSPORUM GYPSEUM,
NOCARDIA BRASILIENSIS, PENICILLIUM JAVANICUM, P. STRIATUM, STAPHYLOCOCCUS “ALBUS,” TRICHODERMA
VIRIDE, TRICHOPHYTON MENTAGROPHYTES, AND VIBRIO CHOLERA. ALCOHOLIC, AQUEOUS, AND ETHER EXTRACTS
HAVE TAENICIDAL ACTIVITY AT 1:100 CONCENTRATIONS. SHARMA ET AL. (2000) SHOWED THAT, THOUGH BACTERICIDAL ON THEIR OWN, EXTRACTS OF BLACK PEPPER, CAPSICUM, AND TURMERIC PARTIALLY PROTECTED BACILLUS
MEGATERIUM, BACILLUS PUMILUS, AND ESCHERICHIA FROM RADIATION, PROBABLY PROTECTING THEIR DNA.
CHILE WAS STRONGEST. KAREN DEAN HAS BEEN PREPARING HER INTERESTING COLUMN, PLANT PATENTS, IN
HERBALGRAM, E.G., IN HERBALGRAM #50, WHERE SHE COVERS THREE NEW PATENTS. ONE WAS FOR TREATING
VARIOUS MYCOSES, E.G., ATHLETE’S FOOT, CANDIDA, DERMATOMYCOSES, FAVUS, JOCK ITCH, RINGWORM, ALL BASED
ON A “NEW CLASS OF GENERAL ANTIINFECTIVE AGENTS” EXTRACTED FROM BLACK-PEPPER (PIPER), GINGER
(ZINGIBER), AND OTHER PLANT SPECIES CONTAINING VANILLYL AND PIPERIDINE RING STRUCTURES TYPICAL OF SOME
OF THE PUNGENT PRINCIPALS FOUND IN PEPPER AND GINGER. I SUPPOSE THIS DOES REPRESENT A BETTER
MOUSETRAP, BUT THE SPICES THEMSELVES HAVE QUITE A HISTORY AS FUNGICIDES. STAGGS PATENT CLAIMS THAT
HIS COMPOSITIONS CONSTITUTE A LESS EXPENSIVE, MORE EFFECTIVE, LESS TOXIC TREATMENT FOR MYCOSES IN
HUMANS AND LIVESTOCK (THAN WIDELY USED ANTIFUNGAL MEDICATIONS). I SUSPECT WE MIGHT DO ALMOST AS
WELL RIGHT THERE IN THE SPICE RACK, GRABBING THE PUNGENT COMPOUNDS FROM OUR RED AND BLACK PEPPERS,
AND GINGER AND TURMERIC. THE PIPERINE FROM BLACK PEPPER HAS BEEN SHOWN TO SYNERGIZE WITH A LOT
OF NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC MEDICATIONS, INCLUDING SOME FUNGICIDES. STAGG’S COMPOSITIONS CONTAIN THE
PUNGENT ACTIVE INGREDIENT IN AN OLEORESIN BASE, FORMULATED INTO BATH PRODUCTS, DROPS, DOUCHES,
INFUSIONS, LOTIONS, PLASTERS, POWDERS, SHAMPOOS, AND TINCTURES. I’D LIKE TO COMPARE STAGGS COMPOSITION WITH MY HOT FOOT [A MIX OF FIVE POWDERED HOT SPICES, BLACK AND RED PEPPER, GINGER AND
TURMERIC, AND THE STINKING ROSE, THE BIBLICAL GARLIC, WHICH ADDS THE PROVEN CANDIDICIDAL AND/OR
FUNGICIDAL COMPOUNDS (AJOENE (IC100 = 100 ΜG/ML)), ALLICIN, CAFFEIC-ACID MIC = 400 G/ML, CHLOROGENIC ACID, CITRAL, P-COUMARIC-ACID, DIALLYL-DISULFIDE, ERUBOSIDE-B (MIC = 25 G/ML), FERULIC ACID,
GERANIOL IC93 = 2 MM, P-HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID, LINALOL, PHLOROGLUCINOL, AND SINAPIC-ACID].
HERE I’D LIKE TO LIST A FEW OF THE COMMENTS FROM A HUNDRED-YEAR-OLD VOLUME (DICTIONARY OF
THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF INDIA, SIX VOLS. BY GEORGE WATT. 1889–1892). IT DEVOTES SEVEN FINE PRINT
PAGES TO BLACK PEPPER AND/OR TRIKATU. TRIKATU, USED EXTERNALLY FOR DERMATOSIS (AND ALOPECIA), MIGHT
DO JUST AS WELL AS STAGG’S COMBO. EXTERNALLY, IT IS VALUED AS A RUBEFACIENT, FOR SORE THROAT, PILES,
AND SOME SKIN DISEASES. MOREOVER, WATT QUOTES A HISTORICAL SPICE FORMULA FOR POOR EYESIGHT. “HE
THAT HATH A BAD OR THICK SIGHT, LET HIM USE PEPPER CORNES, WITH ANNIS, FENNEL SEED, AND CLOVES, FOR
THEREBY THE MYSTINESSE OF THE EYES WHICH DARKEN THE SIGHT IS CLEARED AND DRIVEN AWAY” (DEP). I
LIKE THAT QUOTE, MORE THAN 100 YEARS OLD. IT MIGHT EVEN HELP WITH GLAUCOMA. BUT SOME EAGER BEAVER
NEONATE MIGHT TRY TO PATENT IT. I HOPE NOT. IT’S AN ALL SPICE FORMULA, FOOD FARMACY, WHICH BELONGS
IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. I’LL NOT TRY TO PATENT MY “PEPPERY PHYTOPOTENTIATOR.” IT’S A MIX OF GRAPEFRUIT
JUICE SPICED UP WITH CAYENNE OR TABASCO FOR ITS CAPSAICIN, BLACK PEPPER (FOR ITS PIPERINE), LICORICE
(FOR ITS GLYCYRRHIZIN, A SAPONIN WHICH SAPONIFIES MAKING MORE READILY AVAILABLE MANY MEDICINES),
CARDAMOM (FOR ITS CINEOLE WHICH SPEEDS UP TRANSDERMAL AND PROBABLY TRANSGUT AVAILABILITY), AND
TURMERIC (FOR ITS CURCUMIN). ODDS ARE THAT IF YOU ARE RUNNING LOW ON A PHARMACEUTICAL OR PHYTOCHEMICAL MEDICINE, THIS WILL STRETCH IT, POTENTIATING BY ONE- TO FIVEFOLD THE MEDICINE, BE CAREFUL
WITH HARD CORE PHARMACEUTICALS! MY FRIENDS ALAN TILLOTSEN AND HIS WIFE NAIXIM, MD, BOTH ALSO
CLINICAL HERBALISTS, MAKE THE FOLLOWING SUGGESTION TO SOME OF HIS INDIGENT PATIENTS. TAKE A POUND
OF TURMERIC (ABOUT $3), AND ADD 5% GROUND BLACK PEPPER (11 LEVEL TEASPOONS), WHICH MAKES 460
G OF MEDICINE FOR LESS THAN $4. DOSE IS 2.5 GRAMS TWICE A DAY (A HUGE DOSE = 250 MG BLACK
PEPPER), 92 DAYS (3 MONTHS) FOR $4 OR $1.35 PER MONTH. THE PIPERINE AUGMENTS SIGNIFICANTLY THE
AVAILABILITY OF CURCUMIN, ONE OF NATURE’S COX-2-INHIBITORS, OF GREAT POTENTIAL IN ALZHEIMER’S,
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ARTHRITIS, AND CANCER, ESPECIALLY THE COLON CANCER TO WHICH I AM GENETICALLY TARGETED. NOR WILL I
TRY TO PATENT MY HIGH COLONIC TEA OR GOBO GUMBO, A FOOD FARMACY APPROACH TO ALZHEIMER’S,
ARTHRITIS, COLON CANCER, AND LYMPHOMA. AGAIN, IT EMPHASIZES THE BLACK PEPPER TO INCREASE THE
AVAILABILITY OF THE CURCUMIN. I DON’T BELIEVE IN PATENTING NATURE OR FATHER NATURE’S FARMACY. BUT
MY DATABASE CAN BE HELPFUL TO THOSE TRYING TO BREAK (OR MAKE) A PATENT. THE UPDATED DATABASE AT
HOME CAN LEAD YOU TO THE EARLY REFERENCES AND RECIPES FOR A GIVEN INDICATION FOR A GIVEN HERB. THE
LAWYERS I HAVE WORKED FOR ARE SILENT AND, LIKE ME, SWORN TO SECRECY, BUT I’LL BET I HELPED THEM
BREAK TWO MILLION-DOLLAR PATENTS RECENTLY.
AND REGARDING TOXICITY, LEVELS OF 60,000–110,000 PPM PIPERINE, 14,000 PPM PIPERETINE, AND
8000 PPM CHAVICINE, LEVELS HIGHER THAN THOSE, E.G., IN THE WEALTH OF INDIA, HAVE BEEN ASSUMED.
IT IS HINTED THAT CHAVICINE, PIPERINE, AND PIPERETINE MAY BE LIKE PEPPER’S SAFROLES AND TANNINS,
CARCINOGENIC, ACCOMPANIED BY LIMONENE, PHELLANDRENE, AND PINENE, WHICH “HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO
BE EITHER ONCOGENS, COONCOGENS, OR TUMOR PROMOTERS…. IN ADDITION, THE HIGH CONCENTRATION OF
TERPENES IN BLACK PEPPER OIL SUGGESTS A HIGH TUMOR PROMOTING ACTIVITY.” SINCE PIPERINE AND OTHER
PEPPER ALKALOIDS HAVE CHEMICAL STRUCTURES SIMILAR TO THAT OF THE MUTAGENIC URINARY SAFROLE METABOLITE, 3-PIPERIDYL-1-(3′,4′-METHYLENEDIOXYPHENYL)-1 PROPANONE, PUNGENT COMPONENTS OF BLACK
PEPPER ARE SUSPECTED TO BE MUTAGENIC AND/OR CARCINOGENIC. RUSSIANS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THE
CONSUMPTION OF TOO MUCH TEA FLAVORED WITH BLACK PEPPER MAY HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNUSUALLY
HIGH INCIDENCE OF ESOPHAGEAL CANCER IN THE THEIR AKTIBINSK REGION. LIKE SAFROLE, PIPERINE STIMULATES
HEPATIC REGENERATION IN PARTIALLY HEPATECTOMIZED RATS. TOPICAL APPLICATION OF PEPPER EXTRACT TO
MICE SKIN HAS INCREASED THE INCIDENCE OF TOTAL MALIGNANT TUMORS. REVIEWING THE WORK ON SAFROLE,
BUCHANAN (1978) CONCLUDED THAT IT IS THE MOST THOROUGHLY INVESTIGATED METHYLENEDIOXYBENZENE
DERIVATIVE. THE MAJOR FLAVORING CONSTITUENT IN SASSAFRAS ROOT BARK, SAFROLE ALSO OCCURS IN BASIL,
BLACK PEPPER, CINNAMON LEAF OIL, COCOA, MACE, NUTMEG, PARSLEY, AND STAR ANISE OIL. WHEN SAFROLE
WAS IDENTIFIED AS A “LOW-GRADE HEPATOCARCINOGEN,” IT WAS BANNED IN ROOT BEER, AND THE FDA IN
1976 BANNED INTERSTATE MARKETING OF SASSAFRAS FOR SASSAFRAS TEA. THE ORAL LD50 FOR SAFROLE IN RATS
IS 1950 MG/KG BODY WEIGHT, WITH MAJOR SYMPTOMS INCLUDING ATAXIA, DEPRESSION, AND DIARRHEA,
DEATH OCCURRING IN 4–5 DAYS. INGESTION OF RELATIVELY LARGE AMOUNTS OF SASSAFRAS OIL PRODUCED
PSYCHOACTIVE AND HALLUCINOGENIC EFFECTS PERSISTING SEVERAL DAYS IN HUMANS. WITH RATS, DIETARY
SAFROLE AT LEVELS OF 0.25%, 0.5%, AND 1% PRODUCED GROWTH RETARDATION, STOMACH AND TESTICULAR
ATROPHY, LIVER NECROSIS, AND BILIARY PROLIFERATION, AND PRIMARY HEPATOMAS. BUT AT 10 MG/RAT/DAY,
SAFROLE STIMULATES LIVER REGENERATION, LIKE ISOSAFROLE AND DIHYDROSAFROLE AT 15 MG/RAT/DAY, PIPERINE
AT 25 MG/RAT/DAY AND ESTRAGOLE AT 50 MG/RAT/DAY. IS IT CONCEIVABLE THAT SMALL DOSES HELP THE LIVER
WHILE LARGE DOSES HURT? DOES THIS SUGGEST HORMETICS OR HOMEOPATHY? ALSO REVIEWING RESEARCH ON
MYRISTICIN, WHICH OCCURS IN NUTMEG, MACE, CARROT SEED, CELERY SEED, AND PARSLEY, AS WELL AS BLACK
PEPPER, BUCHANAN (1978) NOTED THAT THE PSYCHOACTIVE AND HALLUCINOGENIC PROPERTIES OF MACE,
NUTMEG, AND PURIFIED MYRISTICIN HAVE BEEN STUDIED. IT HAS BEEN HYPOTHESIZED THAT MYRISTICIN AND
ELEMICIN CAN BE READILY MODIFIED IN THE BODY TO AMPHETAMINES. THE ORAL LD50 FOR NUTMEG OIL
IN RATS, MICE, AND HAMSTERS IS 2600, 5620, AND 6000 MG/KG, RESPECTIVELY. BASED ON LD50S, CAFFEINE
AT 192 IS MUCH MORE DANGEROUS. FOR MORE DATA ON THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE
THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIA, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993.
INDICATIONS (BLACK PEPPER) — ADENITIS (F; CRC; DAA); ALOPECIA (F; DEP); AMENORRHEA (F; FEL);
ANOREXIA (1; EFS; FNF); ARTHROSIS (1; CRC; DAD; DEP; FNF; PH2); ASTHMA (F; PH2; SKJ);
ATHLETE’S FOOT (1; HG50); ATONY (F; FEL); BACTERIA (1; CRC; FNF; JBU); BITE (F; DEP; SKJ); BOIL
(F; DEP); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF; PHR); CALCULUS (1; CRC; DAD); CANCER (1; CRC; DAA; FNF);
CANCER, ABDOMEN (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, ANUS (F; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, COLON
(F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, EYE (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, FACE (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, GUM (F; CRC;
JLH); CANCER, LIVER (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, MOUTH (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, NOSE (F; CRC; JLH);
CANCER, PAROTID (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, SINEW (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER,
STOMACH (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, THROAT (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, UVULA (F; CRC; JLH); CANDIDA (1;
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HG50); CATARRH (F; PH2); CHILL (F; BOW); CHOLERA (1; CRC; DAD; FEL; SKJ); COLD (1; CRC);
COLIC (F; CRC; DEP); COMA (F; DEP); CONDYLOMA (F; JLH); CONSTIPATION (1; CRC; DAD; FEL);
CONGESTION (F; RIN); CONVULSION (1; FNF; SKJ; SPI); CORN (F; JLH); COUGH (1; CRC; PH2; SKJ);
CRAMP (1; FNF); DEBILITY (F; DEP); DERMATOSIS (1; DEP; FNF; PH2; SKJ); DIARRHEA (F; CRC; DEP;
PH2; SPI); DOG BITE (F; SKJ); DRY MOUTH (1; PHR); DYSENTERY (F; CRC; PH2); DYSMENORRHEA (F;
CRC; FEL); DYSPEPSIA (1; DAD; DEP; EFS; FEL; FNF; PHR; PH2); DYSURIA (F; CRC); EPIDIDYMOSIS (1; SPI); EPILEPSY (F; BOW); ESCHERICHIA (1; CRC); FAVUS (1; HG50:30); FEVER (1; CRC;
DAD; PH2); FROSTBITE (1; SPI); FUNGUS (1; FNF); FURUNCULOSIS (F; CRC); GALACTORRHEA (F; PH2);
GAS (1; DAD; EFS; FEL; PH2); GASTROSIS (F; FEL; PHR; PH2); GINGIVOSIS (F; JLH); GONORRHEA (F;
DEP); GRAVEL (F; CRC); HAY FEVER (1; RIN); HEADACHE (1; CRC; PHR); HEAD COLD (1; RIN);
HEMORRHOID (F; DEP; HHB; PH2; SKJ); HEPATOSIS (F; JLH); HICCUP (F; PH2); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
(1; CRC; FNF); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; FNF; LIN); INDURATION (F; JLH); INFECTION (1; CRC; JBU);
INFLAMMATION (1; BOW; FNF); ITCH (F; DEP); LEISHMANIASIS (1; PHR); LETHARGY (1; DAD); MALARIA
(F; CRC; DEP); MUCOSOSIS (F; PH2; RIN); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; HG50); NAUSEA (F; CRC); NERVOUSNESS
(1; FNF); NEURALGIA (1; HHB; PHR; PH2); ONYCHIOSIS (1; HG50:31); OPHTHALMIA (F; JLH); PAIN (1;
FNF; JBU); PARALYSIS (F; CRC; DEP); PARAPLEGIA (1; CRC; DAD; DEP; WOI); PARTURITION (F; CRC);
PHYMATA (F; JLH); PROLAPSE (F; DEP); RESPIROSIS (F; SPI); RHINOSIS (F; SKJ); RINGWORM (1; HG50);
SCABIES (1; PHR; PH2); SCARLATINA (1; CRC; DAD); SCIRRHUS (F; JLH); SINUSOSIS (F; BOW); SNAKEBITE
(F; SKJ); SORE THROAT (F; DEP; SKJ); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; MPI); STOMACHACHE (F;
DAA); SWELLING (F; JLH); TINEA (1; HG50); TOOTHACHE (1; DEP; FNF); TUMOR (1; CRC; FNF); ULCER
(1; FNF; JLH); URETHROSIS (F; PH2); UROLITHIASIS (1; CRC); VERTIGO (F; CRC); VOMITING (F; PH2);
WART (F; JLH); WATER RETENTION (F; PNC); WEN (F; JLH); YEAST (1; HG50).
BLACK PEPPER FOR DERMATOSIS:
• ANALGESIC: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; PIPERINE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; PIPERINE; SAFROLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETOPHENONE; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZOIC-ACID;
CAFFEIC-ACID; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL;
DELTA-3-CARENE; DELTA-CADINENE; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; NEROLIDOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE;
PERILLALDEHYDE; PIPERINE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RHAMNETIN; RUTIN; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL;
TERPINYL-ACETATE
• ANTIDERMATITIC: HYPEROSIDE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMIC-ACID; CUPARENE; DELTA-3-CARENE;
EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PIPERINE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIITCH: CAMPHOR
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZOIC-ACID; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARVONE; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE;
LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; OXALIC-ACID; PIPERINE; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTISTRESS: GABA; MYRISTICIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; KAEMPFEROL; N-ISOBUTYL-OCTADECA-TRANS-2-TRANS-4-
DIENAMIDE; PELLITORINE; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETOPHENONE; ALPHA-PHELLANDRENE; BENZOIC-ACID; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; CINNAMICACID; CITRAL; CITRONELLOL; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; PERILLALDEHYDE; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL; TERPINOLENE
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BLACK PEPPER FOR HIGH CHOLESTEROL:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; QUERCETIN; SAFROLE; SALICYLATES
• ANTIATHEROGENIC: RUTIN
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: CARVACROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIDIABETIC: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIISCHEMIC: UBIQUINONE
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CARVACROL; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; HYPEROSIDE;
ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LINALYL-ACETATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RHAMNETIN; RUTIN; UBIQUINONE
• ANTIOXIDANT (LDL): CARVACROL
• CHOLAGOGUE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CHOLERETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZOIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CINNAMIC-ACID; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCITRIN
• DIURETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; GABA; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; N-HENTRIACONTANE; QUERCITRIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; PIPERINE; QUERCETIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; D-LIMONENE; RUTIN
• HYPOTENSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETYL-CHOLINE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ASTRAGALIN; GABA; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; MYRISTICIN; PIPERINE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• THYROSTIMULANT: PIPERINE
OTHER USES (BLACK PEPPER) — PEPPER HAS BEEN USED AS A CONDIMENT AND MEDICINE SINCE TIMES OF
HIPPOCRATES. SPICES WERE SO VALUED IN THE PAST THAT WHEN ALARICH, A GOTHIC LEADER, LAID SIEGE TO
ROME IN A.D. 408, HE DEMANDED AS RANSOM 3000 LB OF PEPPER AS WELL AS VARIOUS PRECIOUS METALS.
MARCO POLO, MAGELLAN, AND COLUMBUS ALL TOOK HAZARDOUS JOURNEYS SEEKING BETTER ROUTES TO SPICEGROWING COUNTRIES. “BLACK PEPPER…IS THE WORLD’S MOST WIDELY USED SPICE EVEN THOUGH PIPER NIGUM
IS AN EXCLUSIVELY TROPICAL PLANT WITH SEVERAL USEFUL PROPERTIES” (SHERMAN AND FLAXMAN, 2001). IN
4578 MEAT-BASED RECIPES, 93% CALL FOR AT LEAST ONE SPICE. SOME LACKED SPICES ENTIRELY, AND OTHERS
HAD UP TO 12 SPICES. IN 10 COUNTRIES (ETHIOPIA, KENYA, GREECE, INDIA, INDONESIA, IRAN, MALAYSIA,
MOROCCO, NIGERIA, AND THAILAND), EVERY MEAT-BASED RECIPE…CALLED FOR AT LEAST ONE SPICE. BLACK
PEPPER AND ONION WERE CALLED FOR MOST FREQUENTLY, IN 63% AND 65% OF ALL MEAT-BASED RECIPES, THEN
GARLIC, 35%; CHILIS, 24%; LEMON AND LIME JUICE, 23%; PARSLEY, 22%; GINGER, 16%; AND BAY LEAF,
13% (SHERMAN AND BILLING, 1999).
BLACK PEPPER IS THE WHOLE UNRIPE DRIED FRUIT; WHITE PEPPER IS OBTAINED BY REMOVAL OR BLANCHING
OF THE OUTER COATING (PERICARP). BOTH ARE AVAILABLE WHOLE, CRACKED, COARSELY GROUND, OR FINELY GROUND.
BOTH HAVE NUMEROUS CULINARY USES, INCLUDING SEASONING AND FLAVORING OF SOUPS, MEATS, POULTRY, FISH,
EGGS, VEGETABLES, SALADS, SAUCES, AND GRAVIES. BOTH ARE EMPLOYED COMMERCIALLY IN PREPARATION OF
PROCESSED MEATS OF ALL KINDS, SOUPS, SAUCES, PICKLES, SALAD DRESSINGS, MAYONNAISE, AND OTHER FOODS.
TELLICHERRY AND MUNTOK ARE FAMOUS GRADES OF BLACK AND WHITE PEPPER, RESPECTIVELY. MIGNONETTE
PEPPER OR SHOT PEPPER IS A MIXTURE OF WHITE AND BLACK PEPPER WIDELY USED IN FRANCE. POIVRE GRIS
IS FINELY GROUND MIGNONETTE. UNRIPE, GREEN PEPPERCORNS ARE PICKLED IN VINEGAR AND USED AS A RELISH
(FAC). PEPATO IS A SHEEP’S MILK CHEESE FROM SICILY, FLAVORED WITH WHOLE BLACK PEPPERCORNS (FAC).
SEEDS YIELD AN EO USED TO FLAVOR SAUSAGES, PICKLES, CANNED FOODS, AND BEVERAGES (FAC). THE PEPPER
OIL ALSO SERVES IN PERFUMERY. RINZLER (1990) SUGGESTS A PINCH OF PEPPER WHERE I WOULD NOT HAVE
THOUGHT OF PEPPER, I.E., APPLE PIE, APPLESAUCE, BAKED APPLES OR PEARS, EGGNOG, GINGERBREAD, HOT
CHOCOLATE, AND SPICED WINE PUNCH. SHE WISELY REMINDS US TO GRIND PEPPERCORNS JUST BEFORE USING
TO RETAIN MAXIMUM FLAVOR. SHE SUGGESTS USING METAL OR PLASTIC PEPPER MILLS, SINCE WOOD ABSORBS
THE AROMATIC OILS AND IS HARDER TO KEEP CLEAN AND FRESH (DAD, FAC, RIN).
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AND HOW OFTEN HAVE YOU HEARD IT SAID THAT SPICES WERE IMPORTANT BEFORE REFRIGERATION TO SLOW
THE SPOILAGE OF FOODS; SPICES WERE THE ORIGINAL ANTIOXIDANTS? LIN (1994) LAMENTS THAT MANY EXPERT
COMMITTEES, BASED ONLY ON THE TOCOPHEROL CONTENT OF PEPPER, CONCLUDED THAT IT COULD NOT SLOW
SPOILAGE. LIN HOWEVER, THINKS OF THE WHOLE ANTIOXIDANT COMPLEX, NOTING THAT, IN ADDITION TO 0.54%
MIXED TOCOPHEROLS IN THE OLEORESIN (INCLUDING 0.1% ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL), PEPPER CONTAINS FIVE PHENOLIC
AMIDES THAT ARE SUPERIOR AS ANTIOXIDANTS TO ALPHA TOCOPHEROL IN VITRO (SPI). IF YOU CONSULT MY
DATABASE, YOU’LL FIND MANY MORE ANTIOXIDANTS, SUGGESTING THE POSSIBILITY OF SYNERGY IN ANTIOXIDANT
EFFECTS. INTERESTINGLY, LIN (1994) SUGGESTS THAT THE PUNGENCIES OF BLACK (PIPERINE) AND RED PEPPER
(CAPSAICIN) ARE SYNERGIC, TOO.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (BLACK PEPPER) — PEPPER IS USUALLY PROPAGATED BY CUTTINGS FROM STRAIGHT SHOOTS
OF VINES LESS THAN TWO YEARS OLD. HOWEVER, CUTTINGS FROM VINES AS OLD AS 10 YEARS HAVE BEEN USED
SUCCESSFULLY. TERMINAL BUDS ARE CLIPPED WITH LEAVES AND BRANCHES OF THE THIRD THROUGH SEVENTH
NODES. WHEN THE TERMINAL BUD REGENERATES, AFTER ABOUT 10 DAYS, THE 60-CM CUTTINGS ARE PLANTED
OBLIQUELY TO THE SHADED SIDE OF THE SUPPORT, WITH THREE TO FOUR NODES BELOW THE SURFACE, NO DEEPER
THAN 15 CM, AND SHADED. STOLONS, MARCOTS, AND GRAFTS ARE ALSO USED. SEEDLINGS ARE RARELY USED
FOR PROPAGATION. SCIENTISTS REPORT CA. 80% GERMINATION WITH FRESH SEED AFTER ONE MONTH, ADDING
THAT SEEDLINGS FROM SEED OBTAINED FROM CULTIVATED PLANTS ARE FAIRLY UNIFORM. LIKE VANILLA, PEPPER
NEEDS SUPPORT AND MAY BE GROWN UPON SOME COMMERCIAL TREE CROP, AS BETEL PALM, COFFEE, MANGO,
STRYCHNOS, OR ERYTHRINA. IN SARAWAK, EUSIDEROXYLON ZWAGERI, THE BORNEO IRONWOOD, IS USED FOR
STAKES BECAUSE OF ITS RESISTANCE TO TERMITES. IN PONAPE, TREE FERNS 15–20 YEARS OLD WERE RECOMMENDED, BUT THEY ARE HARDER AND HARDER TO COME BY. ENVIRONMENTALISTS WOULD FROWN ON DESTRUCTION
OF TREE FERNS. CATCH CROPS OF CAPSICUM, GINGER, PEANUTS, SOY, OR TOBACCO MAY BE GROWN IF REMOVED
WELL BEFORE THE VINES REACH THE TOP OF THE POST. ONE SHOULD AVOID TOO DENSE A SHADE. CONCRETE
POSTS, THOUGH EXPENSIVE, ARE RECOMMENDED IN SOME AREAS. ELMO DAVIS (PERS. COMM., 1990)
SUGGESTS THAT NEWCOMERS START OUT WITH SEVERAL GERMPLASM LOTS, GROWING ON LIVING FENCEPOSTS AT
FIRST, LATER GOING INTO EXPANDED PRODUCTION WITH THE BETTER GERMPLASM AND TECHNOLOGY. THERE IS
SOME EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT VINES GROWN ON POSTS ESTABLISH THEMSELVES MORE QUICKLY AND YIELD
MORE PEPPER BERRIES THAN DO PLANTS GROWN ON LIVING TREES. HOWEVER, IT DOES COST MORE TO PURCHASE
AND SET POSTS THAN IT DOES TO GROW PLANTS ON LIVING TREES. IN SOME AREAS, WHEN VINES REACH TOP OF
POSTS, THEY ARE DETACHED FROM SUPPORT AND COILED AROUND THE BASE OF SUPPORT AND BURIED, THUS
INCREASING THE VIGOR OF THE PLANTS. FAIRLY HEAVY MANURING IS GIVEN. HEIGHT OF POSTS AND SPACINGS
DIFFER IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. WOOD SUPPORTS ARE COMMONLY USED. IN ASIA, WOOD SUPPORTS MAY BE
3.3–4.6 M HIGH AND SPACED 2.3–2.6 M APART WITH SAME DISTANCE BETWEEN ROWS. IN BRAZIL, THEY
ARE 2.6–3.3 M HIGH AND SPACED 2.6–3.3 M APART EACH WAY. IN SARAWAK, HIGHER YIELDS HAVE BEEN
OBTAINED BY GROWING PEPPER PLANTS AS HEDGES 2 M HIGH IN ROWS 2.6 M APART WITH PLANTS 1.3 M
APART IN HEDGE WITH SEVEN LEADING SHOOTS TRAINED UP WIRES. FOR MECHANIZED FARMS, 3.3 M AVENUES
ARE MINIMAL. ON NEW PLANTINGS IN INFERTILE SOILS, PREPLANT RECOMMENDATIONS ARE 4000–4500 KG/HA
CRUSHED CORAL LIMESTONE, 1000–1200 KG/HA SUPERPHOSPHATE, OR 450–500 KG/HA TREBLE SUPERPHOSPHATE, 3000–3500 KG/HA MURIATE OF POTASH, 10–12 KG/HA ZINC AS ZINC SULFATE, ALL DISCED IN TO A
DEPTH OF 10–15 CM. ON PLANTING, EACH PLANT SHOULD RECEIVE CA. 100 G MAGNESIUM SULFATE AND 250
G NITROGEN AS AMMONIUM SULFATE. EACH PLANT SHOULD RECEIVE CA. 600 G 10/10/10 FERTILIZER, DIVIDED
IN SIX APPLICATIONS, WHERE LABOR IS CHEAP AND RAINFALL IS HIGH. ONCE FULL PRODUCTION IS ATTAINED,
INDIVIDUAL FERTILIZATIONS SHOULD BE DOUBLED. OLD PEPPER PLANTINGS AND HALF-DEAD VINES MAY BE
REJUVENATED BY USING A HEAVY MULCH OF COMPOST AND AN APPLICATION OF FERTILIZER AT FREQUENT
INTERVALS. GUANO WITH SMALL AMOUNTS OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA AND SUPERPHOSPHATE ARE ADDED.
ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED TODAY, SUCH AS GUANO, FISH MEAL, SOYBEAN CAKE, AND MORE
RECENTLY BLOOD-BONE MEAL. AFTER FRUITING BEGINS, GUANO IS APPLIED UP TO 2 KG PER VINE, APPLIED
FOUR TIMES PER YEAR. INORGANIC FERTILIZERS PRODUCE AS GOOD YIELDS AS ORGANIC FERTILIZERS, PROVIDED
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THEY CONTAIN TRACE ELEMENTS, AS IRON, COPPER, ZINC, MANGANESE, BORON, AND MOLYBDENUM. A MIXTURE
OF NPK IN PROPORTION OF 12:5:14 WITH ADDITIONAL MAGNESIUM IS RECOMMENDED AS A BASIC APPLICATION FOR ALL SOIL TYPES. SARAWAK RECOMMENDATIONS ARE 11–13% N, 5–7% P2O5, 16–18 PERCENT
K2O, AND 4–5 PERCENT MGO. PEPPER IS A NUTRIENT-EXHAUSTIVE CROP. IN SARAWAK, MULCHING WITH
CUT GRASS SEEMS TO INCREASE YIELDS. IN NINETEENTH CENTURY MALAYSIA, GAMBIR (UNCARIA GAMBIR)
RESIDUES WERE USED TO MULCH THE PLANTS. ELSEWHERE, CALOPOGONIUM MUCUNOIDES IS GROWN AS A
NITROGEN-FIXING COVER CROP BETWEEN THE PLANTS. PLANTS SHOULD BE PRUNED WHEN 60 CM TALL. PRUNING
ENCOURAGES LATERAL FERTILE BRANCHES AND DENSE FOLIAGE INDICATES A MAXIMUM NUMBER OF FRUITING
BRANCHES. AFTER VINE HAS BEGUN TO BEAR, ONLY TWO (OR THREE) STEMS SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO GROW
FROM A SINGLE ROOT (DAD). VINES MAY START PRODUCING IN THE THIRD YEAR, BEARING ON UNTIL THE
FIFTEENTH YEAR. FLOWERING IS PRECEDED BY FLUSHING, USUALLY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE RAINIER SEASON.
FIRST HARVEST IS USUALLY 3 YEARS AFTER PLANTING, WHEN THE VINES HAVE REACHED THE TOP OF THEIR POSTS.
ALL FRUITING SPIKES, RIPE AND UNRIPE, ARE PICKED. THAT WAY, VINES WILL FRUIT MORE EVENLY IN THE
FOLLOWING SEASON. IF A WHITISH LIQUID OOZES FROM A THUMBNAIL INJURY TO THE FRUIT, THE “CORN” IS
TOO GREEN. WHOLE FRUITING SPIKES ARE PICKED AFTER SOME FRUITS HAVE REDDENED AND OTHERS ARE GREEN
OR YELLOW. VINES ARE PICKED ONCE A WEEK OVER THE RIPENING PERIOD, OR ONLY IN ONE BIG PICKING
(E.G., IN INDIA). WHEN PARTIALLY DRY, “CORNS” ARE SEPARATED FROM THE STALKS BY RUBBING THE SPIKES
BETWEEN THE PALMS OF THE HANDS OR BY TRAMPLING UNDERFOOT. FOR BLACK PEPPER, THE DRUPES ARE SUN
DRIED FOR 3–4 DAYS. FOR WHITE PEPPER, LIGHTLY-CRUSHED RIPER SPIKES ARE SACKED AND SOAKED IN
RUNNING WATER FOR 7–10 DAYS, THEN TRAMPLED UNDERFOOT, AND THE FRUITS SEPARATED BY HAND AND SUN
DRIED FOR 3–4 DAYS. WHITE PEPPER CAN ALSO BE MADE BY MECHANICAL ABRASION OF DRIED BLACK
PEPPERCORNS. SMALL PLANTINGS OF HEDGES, 2.5 M APART WITH PLANTS 1.2 M APART IN THE HEDGE AND 2
M HIGH, HAVE YIELDED 35,000 KG GREEN PEPPER/HA. FOR EACH 100 KG OF GREEN PEPPER, 25–28 KG OF
WHITE OR 33–37 KG OF BLACK PEPPER CAN BE PRODUCED. WELL-CULTIVATED VINES YIELD TO 1.8 KG GREEN
PEPPER THE THIRD YEAR TO 9 KG UNTIL THE SEVENTH YEAR, DECLINING TO 2.3 KG IN THE EIGHTH TO FIFTEENTH
YEAR, WHEN PLANTINGS SHOULD BE ABANDONED. IN INDIA, PRODUCTION MAY CONTINUE FOR 25 YEARS, EVEN
100 YEARS IN BACKYARD GARDENS.
CHEMISTRY (BLACK PEPPER) — PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) NOTED THAT DIETARY PIPERINE SIGNIFICANTLY
INCREASED LIPASE, MALTASE, AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS
FOUND IN BLACK PEPPER. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE
CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
PIPERIDINE — ANTIENZYMATIC; CNS-DEPRESSANT; DIAPHORETIC; HEPATOTROPIC; INSECTIFUGE 50 PPM;
SPINOCONVULSANT; URATE-SOLVENT; LD50 = 400 ORL RAT; LD50 = 0.52 ML/KG.
PIPERINE — ABORTIFACIENT; ADRENERGIC; ANALEPTIC; ANALGESIC; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAFLATOXIN; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICLASTOGEN; ANTICONVULSANT 50–400 MG/KG IPR; ANTIEDEMIC 10 MG/KG; ANTIFERTILITY 12.5 MG/KG; ANTIGLUCURONIDASE IC20 = 1 ΜM, IC20 = 25 ΜM, IC42 = 50 ΜM, IC57 = 100 ΜM;
ANTIIMPLANTATION; ANTIINFLAMMATORY 10 MG/KG; ANTILEISHMANNIC; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTINARCOTIC;
ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEPTIC; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTISUBSTANCE-P; ARYL-HYDROCARBON-HYDROXYLASE (AHH)-
INHIBITOR 125 MG/KG; ATPASE-STIMULANT; CARCINOGENIC; CARDIOTONIC; CARMINATIVE; CATECHOLAMINOGENIC 650 NM/KG; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; DIAPHORETIC; DIGESTIVE; ENDORPHINOGENIC; EPINEPHRENINERGIC; GLUTATHIONE-SPARING; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; HEPATOREGENERATIVE; HYPERTENSIVE; HYPOTENSIVE 1 MG/KG IV DOG; INSECTICIDE; INSECTIFUGE; LACTASE-PROMOTER; MALTASE-PROMOTER; MUTAGENIC;
MYOCONTRACTOR; MYORELAXANT; POSITIVE CHRONOTROPIC; POSITIVE INOTROPIC; P450-INDUCER; P450-INHIBITOR; PARASITICIDE; PERISTALTIC; PLASMODICIDE; RADIOPROTECTIVE; RESPIRASTIMULANT 5 MG/KG IVN; SECRETAGOGUE; SEDATIVE; SEROTONINERGIC; SPASMOGENIC; SPERMOGENIC; STIMULANT; SUCRASE-PROMOTER; THERMOGENIC 5 MG/MAN; THYROSTIMULANT; LD50 = 349 MG/KG IPR RAT; LD50 = 514–800 MG/KG ORL RAT;
LD50 = 330–1639 MG/KG ORL MUS.
PIPERONAL — ANTICANCER; PEDICULICIDE; LD50 = 2700 ORL RAT.
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PISTACIA LENTISCUS L. (ANACARDIACEAE)
CHIOS MASTICTREE, MASTIC
MEDICINAL USES (MASTIC) — THE BEST GRADES OF MASTIC, YELLOWISH-WHITE TRANSLUCENT TEARS, ARE MEDICINALLY EMPLOYED AS AN AROMATIC ASTRINGENT. THE RESIN IS PAINTED OVER WOUNDS TO PROTECT THEM. FREQUENTLY
CITED IN THE CANCER FOLKLORE, USING THE RESIN OR JUICE FROM MASTIC. USED FOR DIARRHEA IN CHILDREN. REGARDED
AS ANALGESIC, ANTITUSSIVE, APERITIF, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, CARMINATIVE, DIAPHORETIC, DIURETIC, EXPECTORANT,
HEMOSTATIC, STIMULANT TO THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES, AND STOMACHIC (JLH). LEBANESE DISSOLVE THE RESIN IN
ALCOHOL, ADDING LEMON JUICE, FOR GALL BLADDER AND LIVER TROUBLE. ALGERIANS USE THE ROOT DECOCTION FOR
COUGH. THE OIL OBTAINED BY HOT EXTRACTION OF THE NUTS IS USED FOR ITCH AND RHEUMATISM (BIB).
INDICATIONS (MASTIC) — ADENOSIS (F; JLH); APOSTEME (F; CRC; JLH); BACTERIA (1; FNF;
X8808717); BLEEDING (F; CRC); BLENNORRHEA (F; CRC); BOIL (F; BIB; CRC); BRONCHOSIS (F; FEL);
CANCER (1; CRC; FNF; JLH); CANCER, ANUS (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER,
LIVER (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, PAROTID (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH
(F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, TESTICLE (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, THROAT (F; CRC; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (F;
CRC; JLH); CANDIDA (1; HH3; X8808717); CANKER (1; BIB; CRC; FNF); CARBUNCLE (F; CRC);
CARIES (1; CRC; FEL; FNF); CATARRH (F; CRC; FEL; HH3); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; BIB; CRC); CIRRHOSIS
(F; CRC; HH3); CONDYLOMA (F; CRC; JLH); COUGH (F; BIB); CRAMP (1; FNF); DEBILITY (F; CRC);
DERMATOSIS (F; GHA); DIARRHEA (F; CRC; HH3); DYSENTERY (F; CRC; HH3); ESCHERICHIA (1; HH3);
FEVER (1; GHA); FUNGUS (1; FNF; HH3; X8808717); GASTROSIS (F; BIB; CRC); GINGIVOSIS (1; FEL;
FNF; PHR; PH2); GONORRHEA (F; CRC; HH3); GOUT (F; HH3); HALITOSIS (1; BIB; CRC; DEP; FEL;
FNF; PHR); HEART (F; CRC); HEPATOSIS (F; BIB; CRC; HH3); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; FNF; HH3;
X1409845); INDURATION (F; CRC; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF; X8808717); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; JLH);
ITCH (F; BIB); LEUKORRHEA (F; CRC; HH3); MASTOSIS (F; CRC); MUCOSOSIS (F; CRC); MYCOSIS (1;
FNF; HH3; X8808717); MYOSIS (F; BOW); NEPHROSIS (F; FEL); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); PAIN (F;
CRC; GHA); PHYMATA (F; CRC); RHEUMATISM (F; BIB; HH3); RINGWORM (F; BOW); SCLEROSIS (F;
CRC); SCIRRHUS (F; CRC; JLH); SORE (F; HH3); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; HH3); TOOTHACHE (1; CRC;
FNF); TUMOR (1; CRC; FNF); ULCER (1; FNF; PH2; X3724207); VD (F; CRC; HH3); VIRUS (1;
FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WOUND (1; GHA); YEAST (1; HH3; X8808717).
MASTIC FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AUCUBIN; CYCLOARTENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: LUPEOL; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; AUCUBIN; BETA-PINENE; CYCLOARTENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LUPEOL;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTISEPTIC: BETA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUPEOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: LINALOOL; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
MASTIC FOR ULCER:
• ANALGESIC: MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: LINALOOL; MYRCENE
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AUCUBIN; CYCLOARTENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; AUCUBIN; BETA-PINENE; CYCLOARTENOL; KAEMPFEROL; LUPEOL;
MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: AUCUBIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUPEOL; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTISEPTIC: BETA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTISPASMODIC: KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIULCER: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUPEOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: LINALOOL; MYRCENE; QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (MASTIC) — CULTIVATED PRIMARILY FOR THE RESIN, IT IS USED AS A LICORICE-FLAVORED MASTICATORY AND A MEDICINE. WOMEN LIVING IN HAREMS USE THE RESIN OBTAINED FROM THE BARK BY INCISION.
THEY CHEW IT TO SWEETEN THEIR BREATH AND STRENGTHEN THEIR GUMS. ALSO USED TO HARDEN GUMS AND
ALLEVIATE TOOTHACHE. EASTERN CHILDREN BUY THIS FOR A CHEWING GUM. USED FOR FILLING DENTAL CARIES.
ALSO USED IN COSMETICS AND DEPILATORY CREAMS AND PERFUMES (DEP). USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
CONFECTIONARY, LIQUEURS, AND VARNISHES. MASTIC ALSO PROVIDES A FLAVOR OPTION FOR THE JELLY-LIKE CANDY
CALLED “LOKUM,” OR TURKISH DELIGHT, AND TO FLAVOR MASTICHA LIQUEUR, RAHAT LOKUM, PUDDINGS, ALMOND
PASTE, COOKIES, NABULSI CHEESE, CAKES, AND CANDIES (FAC). ALL OVER THE MIDDLE EAST, MASTIC IS USED
TO FLAVOR MILK PUDDINGS. IT ENRICHES SWEET APRICOT PUDDING MADE OF DRIED APRICOT “LEATHER.” IN THE
MIDDLE EAST, MASTIC IS AS COMMON FOR ICE CREAM AS VANILLA IN AMERICA (AAR). MANY SAUDI COOKS
DROP A NUGGET OF THIS SPICE INTO MEATY STEWS, SOUP, OR BROTH (AAR). THE ROMANS USED THE FRUITS
AS AN AROMATIC SEASONING (FAC). IN ARAB COUNTRIES, A LITTLE MASTIC IS MIXED WITH GROUND DATES,
BUTTER, AND SOME CHOPPED WALNUTS FOR COOKIES. MASTIKHA, AN ALCOHOLIC DRINK OF CHIOS, SIMILAR TO
OUZO, IS FLAVORED WITH MASTIC AS WELL AS ANISE. GREEKS MADE A LIQUEUR, MASTICHE, FLAVORING THE MASTIC
WITH GRAPE SKINS. SYRIANS ALSO MAKE A MASTIC BEVERAGE. A NONALCOHOLIC DRINK IS MADE BY STIRRING
A SPOONFUL OF SWEET MASTIC JAM INTO A GLASS OF WATER. POORER GRADES ARE USED FOR VARNISH, USED FOR
COATING METALS AND PAINTINGS, FOR LITHOGRAPHY FOR RETOUCHING NEGATIVES, AND FOR MICROSCOPY (MOUNTS).
EGYPTIANS USED MASTIC AS AN EMBALMING AGENT. SOMETIMES USED IN INCENSE. OIL OF MASTIC USED IN
COSMETICS. THE WOOD AND LEAVES BURN GREEN WHEN BURNED; BOTH THE FRUIT AND WOOD GIVE OUT A
PLEASANT AROMA. IN SARDINIA, WILD BOAR AND OTHER MEATS ARE ROASTED WITH THE WOOD, SMOKE OF WHICH
CONTRIBUTES ITS OWN AROMA AND FLAVOR. THE OIL EXPRESSED FROM THE BERRIES IS USED BY THE ARABS FOR
BOTH FOOD AND ILLUMINATION. IT IS KNOWN AS SHINA OIL OF CYPRUS. LEAVES, CONTAINING 10–12% TANNIC
ACID, GATHERED FOR DYEING AND TANNING (FEL). THE TWIGS ARE USED IN BASKETRY. (AAR, BIB, FAC, FEL).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (MASTIC) — RARELY CULTIVATED, E.G., IN THE CANARY ISLANDS. IT GROWS IN SOUTHERN
EUROPE, NORTHERN AFRICA, ALGERIA, AND THE EAST. IT GROWS WILD ALONG SHORES OF THE ADRIATIC SEA.
IN ALGERIA, IT FORMS DENSE COPSES ALONG THE COAST. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS CULTIVATING IN ALKALINE,
DRY, SANDY OR ROCKY, SUNNY SOILS, ZONE 9. SEEDS ARE SOWN IN SPRING AT CA. 25°C (77°F), OR GREEN
CUTTINGS ARE TAKEN IN LATE SPRING OR EARLY SUMMER, OR SEMIRIPE CUTTINGS LATER IN SUMMER. TREES ARE
TRIMMED IN SPRING TO KEEP THEM SMALL. ONE MAJOR SOURCE HAS BEEN THE ISLAND OF CHIOS AT ELEVATIONS
UP TO 500 M AND ANNUAL RAINFALL 70–75 CM. ONLY MALE TREES ARE PROPAGATED BY CUTTINGS, AS THE
FEMALES HAVE AN INFERIOR RESIN. WILD CRAFTERS MAY HARVEST THE NATURALLY EXUDED RESIN. COMMERCIAL,
VERTICAL INCISIONS ARE MADE IN THE TRUNK, FROM WHICH THE RESIN EXUDES. IT IS COLLECTED AFTER IT
HARDENS IN ABOUT 3 WEEKS (WOI). ACCORDING TO BOWN (2001), TREES ARE TAPPED FOR 5–6 WEEKS,
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BY MAKING SOME 200–300 VERTICAL INCISIONS CA. 2 CM LONG IN A TREE. IN CHIOS, HARVESTING IS
RESTRICTED BY LAW TO BETWEEN JULY 15 AND OCTOBER 15.
CHEMISTRY (MASTIC) — SIXTY-NINE CONSTITUENTS WERE IDENTIFIED IN THE EOS; ALPHA-PINENE, MYRCENE,
TRANS-CARYOPHYLLENE, AND GERMACRENE D WERE THE MAJOR COMPONENTS. THE IN VITRO ANTIMICROBIAL
ACTIVITY OF THE EOS AND RESIN (TOTAL, ACID AND NEUTRAL FRACTION) AGAINST SIX BACTERIA AND THREE FUNGI
WERE REPORTED (PM65:749). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN MASTIC. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PINENE — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTIINFLAMMATORY;
ANTISPASMODIC; ANTIVIRAL; COLEOPTIPHILE; EXPECTORANT; HERBICIDE IC50 = 30 ΜM; INSECTIFUGE 50
PPM; INSECTIPHILE; IRRITANT; P450(2B1)-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.087 ΜM; SEDATIVE; SPASMOGENIC; TRANQUILIZER; TRANSDERMAL.
SHIKIMIC-ACID — ANALGESIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIOXIDANT (7 × QUERCETIN); ANTIRADICULAR (7 × QUERCETIN); ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUMOR; BRUCHIFUGE; CARCINOGENIC; ILEORELAXANT; MUTAGENIC; LD50 =
1000 IPR MUS.
PRUNUS DULCIS (MILL.) D. A. WEBB (ROSACEAE)
ALMOND, BITTER ALMOND, SWEET ALMOND
SYNONYMS — AMYGDALUS COMMUNIS L., A. DULCIS MILL., PRUNUS AMYGDALUS BATSCH, P. COMMUNIS
(L.) ARCANG., P. DULCIS VAR. AMARA (DC). BUCHHEIM.
MEDICINAL USES (ALMOND) — REGARDED AS ALTERATIVE, ASTRINGENT, CARMINATIVE, CYANOGENETIC, DEMULCENT, DISCUTIENT, DIURETIC, EMOLLIENT, LAXATIVE, LITHONTRYPTIC, NERVINE, SEDATIVE, STIMULANT, AND TONIC.
IT IS NO SURPRISE THAT THE SEEDS AND/OR OIL (CONTAINING AMYGDALIN OR BENZALDEHYDE) ARE WIDELY
ACCLAIMED AS FOLK CANCER REMEDIES, FOR ALL SORTS OF CANCERS AND TUMORS, CALLUSES, CONDYLOMATA, AND
CORNS (DUKE, 1983; HARTWELL, 1982). LEBANESE USE THE OIL FOR SKIN TROUBLE, INCLUDING WHITE LEUKODERMA-LIKE PATCHES ON SKIN. THROUGHOUT THE MIDDLE EAST, THE OIL IS USED AS AN EMOLLIENT AND TO
ALLEVIATE ITCHING. RAW OIL FROM THE BITTER VARIETY IS USED FOR ACNE. ALMOND AND HONEY WAS GIVEN FOR
COUGH. THIN ALMOND PASTE WAS ADDED TO WHEAT PORRIDGE TO PASS GRAVEL OR STONE. LEBANESE BELIEVE
THAT ALMONDS AND/OR ALMOND OIL RESTORE VIRILITY. IRANIANS MAKE AN OINTMENT FROM BITTER ALMONDS FOR
FURUNCLES. BITTER ALMONDS, WHEN EATEN IN SMALL QUANTITY, SOMETIMES PRODUCE NETTLE RASH AND, WHEN
TAKEN IN LARGE QUANTITY, THEY MAY CAUSE POISONING. AYURVEDICS CONSIDER THE FRUIT, THE SEED, AND ITS
OIL APHRODISIAC, USING THE OIL FOR BILIOUSNESS, HEADACHE, THE SEED AS A LAXATIVE. UNANI USE THE SEED
FOR ASCITES, BRONCHITIS, COLIC, COUGH, DELIRIUM, EARACHE, GLEET, HEPATITIS, HEADACHE, HYDROPHOBIA,
INFLAMMATION, RENITIS, SKIN AILMENTS, SORE THROAT, AND WEAK EYES. BURNT ALMOND SHELLS ARE USED AS
A DENTIFRICE. UNRIPE FRUITS ARE APPLIED AS AN ASTRINGENT TO GUMS AND MOUTH. BITTER ALMOND IN VINEGAR
IS PLASTERED ONTO NEURALGIA. THE BIBLICAL PAIR, ALMONDS AND FIGS, ARE CONSIDERED LAXATIVE AND USEFUL
AT ALLAYING INTESTINAL PAIN (DEP).
LIKE MANY OTHER PLANTS (NOT JUST GREEN TEA, GRAPE, PINEBARK, AND PEANUT SKINS), ALMONDS, ESPECIALLY
GREEN ALMONDS, ARE WELL ENDOWED WITH ANTIOXIDANT OPCS. DE PASCUAL ET AL. (1998) NOTE THAT GREEN
ALMOND EXTRACTS CONTAIN TWO MONOMERS, (+)-CATECHIN AND (–)-EPICATECHIN, AND 15 OLIGOMERIC PROCYANIDINS (6 DIMERS, 7 TRIMERS, AND 2 TETRAMERS). AND BITTER ALMONDS ARE NOT THE ONLY SOURCE OF LAETRILE,
OR FOR THAT MATTER AMYGDALIN. OVER 100 YEARS, GEORGE WATT, (DEP, 1892) COMPARED THE AMYGDALIN
CONTENT OF BITTER ALMOND AND PEACH PITS (2.3–2.5%); CHERRY, LAUREL LEAVES 1.38%; APPLE, CHERRY, PLUM
SEEDS, AND RHAMNUS FRANGULA, LESS THAN 1%. LAETRILE IS A SEMISYNTHETIC DERIVATIVE OF AMYGDALIN.
CLAIMS FOR LAETRILE WERE BASED ON THREE DIFFERENT THEORIES. THEORY (1) CLAIMED THAT CANCEROUS CELLS
CONTAINED COPIOUS BETA-GLUCOSIDASES, WHICH RELEASE HCN FROM LAETRILE VIA HYDROLYSIS. NORMAL CELLS
WERE REPORTEDLY UNAFFECTED, BECAUSE THEY CONTAINED LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF BETA-GLUCOSIDASES AND HIGH
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CONCENTRATIONS OF RHODANESE, WHICH CONVERTS HCN TO THE LESS TOXIC THIOCYANATE. LATER, HOWEVER, IT
WAS SHOWN THAT BOTH CANCEROUS AND NORMAL CELLS CONTAIN ONLY TRACE AMOUNTS OF BETA-GLUCOSIDASES
AND SIMILAR AMOUNTS OF RHODANESE. ALSO, IT WAS THOUGHT THAT AMYGDALIN WAS NOT ABSORBED INTACT FROM
THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT. THEORY (2) PROPOSED THAT, AFTER INGESTION, AMYGDALIN WAS HYDROLYZED TO
MANDELONITRILE, TRANSPORTED INTACT TO THE LIVER AND CONVERTED TO A BETA-GLUCURONIDE COMPLEX, WHICH
WAS THEN CARRIED TO THE CANCEROUS CELLS, HYDROLYZED BY BETA-GLUCURONIDASES TO RELEASE MANDELONITRILE
AND THEN HCN. THIS WAS BELIEVED AN UNTENABLE THEORY. THEORY (3) CALLED LAETRILE VITAMIN B-17,
SUGGESTING THAT CANCER IS A RESULT OF B-17 DEFICIENCY. IT POSTULATED THAT CHRONIC ADMINISTRATION OF
LAETRILE WOULD PREVENT CANCER. NO EVIDENCE WAS ADDUCED TO SUBSTANTIATE THIS HYPOTHESIS. IT WAS EVEN
CLAIMED THAT PATIENTS TAKING LAETRILE REDUCED THEIR LIFE EXPECTANCY, BOTH THROUGH OF LACK OF PROPER
MEDICAL CARE AND CHRONIC CYANIDE POISONING (WHICH MIGHT BE USEFUL IN SICKLE CELL ANEMIA PATIENTS).
IN ORDER TO REDUCE POTENTIAL RISKS TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC, AMYGDALIN WAS MADE A PRESCRIPTION-ONLY
MEDICINE IN 1984 (CAN). THE NCI-FAVORED TAXOL SOLD FOR OVER $1 BILLION IN 2000, BUT SOME CANCER
RESEARCHERS STILL STUDY AMYGDALIN AND/OR LAETRILE “… LAETRILE STOPPED THE SPREAD OF CANCER, THE
METASTASES, ABOUT 80% OF THE TIME” [KANEMATSU SUGUIRA, ONE PIONEER OF CHEMOTHERAPY WHO HAD
WORKED AT SLOANE KETTERING SINCE 1917; AS QUOTED IN MASON (2001)]. MEANWHILE, THE OFFICIAL POSITION
OF SLOANE KETTERING: “ITS LAETRILE STUDIES WERE NEGATIVE” (MASON, 2001). I PERSONALLY STRADDLE THE
FENCE; I THINK LAETRILE IS PROBABLY AS USEFUL AS SOME OF THE OTHER PLANT-DERIVED DRUGS, LIKE PERHAPS
ETOPOSIDE AND TAXOL, YET NOT SO TOXIC. IF DIAGNOSED WITH CANCER, I’D BE EATING ALMONDS (OR APPLE SEEDS
OR WILD CHERRIES) FOR THEIR AMYGDALIN, AND BRAZILNUTS FOR THEIR SELENIUM, AND MAYBE SOME HAZELNUTS,
FOR HOMEOPATHIC DOSES OF TAXOL. MOSS (2001), LIKE ME, RECOMMENDS MORE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES THAN
DOES THE NIH, BUT HE RECOMMENDS FEWER FRUITS AND MORE VEGGIES FOR CANCER PATIENTS “AN ABUNDANCE
OF SUGAR—EVEN NATURAL SUGARS—MIGHT HAVE AN ADVERSE EFFECT.”
FATALITIES FROM CYANIDE POISONING HAVE BEEN REPORTED FOR APPLE, APRICOT, AND BITTER ALMOND SEEDS.
AND REPORTEDLY, FEEDING 2.5 G ALMOND SEED TO RABBITS RESULTED IN HYPOGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY (JAC7:405).
INDICATIONS (ALMOND) — ACNE (F; BIB); ADENOSIS (1; JLH); ASCITES (F; BIB); ASTHMA (1; BIB; FNF);
BACTERIA (1; FNF); BILIOUSNESS (F; BIB); BRONCHOSIS (1; BIB; FNF); CALLUS (F; BIB; JLH); CANCER (1;
BIB; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (1; APA); CANCER, BREAST (1; APA; JLH); CANCER, COLON (1; ABS);
CANCER, GLAND (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, MOUTH (1; APA); CANCER, SPLEEN
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CARDIOPATHY (1; APA;
FNF); COLD (F; BIB); COLIC (F; BIB); CONDYLOMA (F; BIB; JLH); CONSTIPATION (1; APA); CORN (F; BIB;
JLH); COUGH (F; BIB; DEP; PH2); CRAMP (1; BIB; FNF); CYSTOSIS (F; BIB; JLH); DELIRIUM (F; BIB);
DERMATOSIS (1; BIB; FNF; PH2; WOI); DIABETES (F; DAA); DYSMENORRHEA (F; DEP); DYSPNEA (F;
BIB); EARACHE (F; BIB); ENTEROSIS (F; DEP); FUNGUS (1; FNF); FURUNCLE (F; BIB); GALLSTONE (F; BOW);
GINGIVOSIS (1; BIB; FNF); GLEET (F; BIB); GRAVEL (F; BIB); HEADACHE (F; BIB; DEP); HEARTBURN (F;
BIB); HEPATOSIS (1; BIB; DEP; FNF; JLH); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; APA; FNF); HYDROPHOBIA (F; BIB);
IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); IMPOTENCE (F; BIB); INDURATION (F; BIB; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF);
INFLAMMATION (1; BIB; FNF); ITCH (F; BIB; WOI); KIDNEY STONE (F; BOW); LEUKODERMA (F; BIB);
NAUSEA (F; PH2); NEPHROSIS (F; BIB); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEURALGIA (F; DEP); OPHTHALMIA (F;
DEP); PAIN (F; DEP); PULMONOSIS (F; BIB); RESPIROSIS (F; EFS); SCLEROSIS (F; JLH) SORE (F; BIB; JLH);
SORE THROAT (F; BIB); SPLENOSIS (F; BIB; DEP; JLH); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; MPI); STOMATOSIS (1; BIB;
FNF); STONE (F; BOW); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; MPI); SWELLING (F; JLH); TUMOR (1; FNF); ULCER (1; BIB;
FNF); VD (F; BIB); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; PH2); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF).
ALMOND FOR CANCER:
• 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL;
PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; TRIOLEIN
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; AMYGDALIN; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; FOLIC-ACID; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; MUCILAGE; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID
• ANTICERVICALDYSPLASIC: FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; AMYGDALIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTILEUKEMIC: DAUCOSTEROL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: GERANIOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIMETAPLASTIC: FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIMETASTATIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CYANIDIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL; KAEMPFEROL;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPOLYP: FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; DAUCOSTEROL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL;
KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: QUERCITRIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; FOLICACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALMOND FOR DERMATOSIS:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; PCOUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIDERMATITIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; AMYGDALIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTISEPTIC: BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CRESOL; EUGENOL; GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; OXALIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• FUNGICIDE: CAFFEIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIOL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (ALMOND) — THE ALMOND WAS VERY IMPORTANT, EVEN IN BIBLICAL TIMES. IT HAS BEEN
INFERRED THAT ALMONDS DID NOT GROW NATURALLY IN EGYPT, SINCE JACOB’S SONS TOOK ALMONDS TO JOSEPH.
NOWADAYS, THE ALMOND IS WIDESPREAD IN THE HOLY LAND. ALMOND BRANCHES WERE REPORTEDLY USED AS
DIVINING RODS TO LOCATE HIDDEN TREASURE. THERE IS THE LEGENDARY STORY OF CHARLEMAGNE’S TROOPS’ SPEARS
(ALMOND) SPROUTING IN THE GROUND OVERNIGHT AND SHADING THE TENTS THE NEXT DAY. ALMONDS ARE ONE
OF THE EARLIEST TREES TO FLOWER IN TUSCANY. THEY ARE ALSO ONE OF THE FIRST TO FLOWER IN THE PALESTINIAN
SPRING. BECAUSE OF THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH SPRING, THE ALMOND FLOWER IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH LIFE AFTER
DEATH, OR IMMORTALITY. MODERN ENGLISH JEWS CARRY BRANCHES OF FLOWERING ALMONDS INTO THE SYNAGOGUE
ON SPRING FESTIVAL DAYS. ALMOND IS A SOPHISTICATED FLAVORING, HENCE SPICE, SWEET (VAR. DULCIS) AND
BITTER (VAR. AMARA). RAW, BITTER ALMONDS ARE NOT USUALLY AVAILABLE COMMERCIALLY IN THE U.S. ALMOND
EXTRACT PROVIDES THE BITTER FLAVOR WITHOUT THE TOXICITY. A SMALL AMOUNT OF EXTRACT SHOULD ALWAYS BE
ADDED TO THE SWEET ALMONDS IN A RECIPE. A HINT OF ALMOND FLAVOR WILL LIVEN UP WHIPPED CREAM (ONEFOURTH TEASPOON EXTRACT PER CUP UNWHIPPED CREAM) (AAR). SEEDS ARE A FAVORITE OF MINE, RAW, SALTED,
ROASTED, OR SPROUTED. THEY ARE USED IN BAKED GOODS, CAKES, CONFECTIONERY, AND PASTRY. SEED ARE
GROUND AND BLENDED WITH WATER TO MAKE ALMOND MILK. IN THE MIDDLE AGES, “ALMOND MILK” WAS A
STAPLE. SIMMER BLANCHED, CHOPPED, OR COARSELY GROUND ALMONDS IN WATER (HALF A POUND IN TWO CUPS
OF WATER) FOR 10 MIN. THIS “MILK” WILL GIVE A RECIPE THE DESIRED ALMOND FLAVOR. ADD A TEASPOON OF
ALMOND EXTRACT TO SUPPLY THE BITTER ALMOND TASTE (AAR). THE MILK CAN BE MADE INTO ALMOND BUTTER.
THE TENDER KERNELS OF YOUNG ALMONDS, PICKED BEFORE THEY MATURE, ARE A TRADITIONAL DELICACY IN THE
MIDDLE EAST. ALMOND PASTE IS USED IN AMARETTO, MACAROONS, MARZIPAN, ETC. TOAST ALMONDS BY
SPREADING WHOLE NUTS ON A COOKIE SHEET IN A 350ΟF OVEN, NO MORE THAN 8 MIN; SLICED OR SLIVERED
ALMONDS, ONLY 5 MIN. DO NOT LET THEM BROWN (AAR). THE DISH “PICADA,” A MIX OF ALMONDS, GARLIC
AND OLIVE OIL, AND CHOPPED PARSLEY, IS IMPORTANT IN CATALAN CUISINE. EDIBLE ALMOND OIL, EXPRESSED
FROM THE SEEDS, IS SWEET AND NUTTY, AND SERVES WELL WITH SALADS AND VEGETABLES. IT IS USED IN FLAVORING,
PERFUMERY, AND MEDICINES. BENZALDEHYDE MAY BE USED FOR ALMOND FLAVORING, USUALLY BEING CHEAPER
THAN ALMOND OIL. THE FATTY OIL IS USED IN COSMETIC OINTMENTS AND OTHER NATURAL COSMETICS. ALMOND
AND OLIVE OIL ARE PARTICULARLY RECOMMENDED FOR PEOPLE WITH DRY SKIN; AND DRY SKINS ARE WHAT WE
EXPECT IN BIBLICAL COUNTRY. IT IS USED IN COLD CREAMS, NOURISHING CREAMS, AND SKIN CREAMS (WOI).
FOR AGING SKIN, AUBREY HAMPTON, AUTHOR OF ONE OF THE BETTER BOOKS ON NATURAL COSMETICS, RECOMMENDS CLEANING WITH OLIVE OIL CASTILLE SOAP AND THEN MOISTURIZING WITH ALMOND OIL. BOTH BITTER AND
SWEET ALMOND OIL CONTAIN 35–55% FIXED OILS, BUT THE BITTER OIL MAY CONTAIN 3–40% AMYGDALIN.
AUBREY CLASSIFIES THE SWEET OIL AS AN EXCELLENT EMOLLIENT FOR CHAPPED HANDS AND FACE LOTIONS. KERNELS
OF APRICOT, CHERRY, PEACH, AND PLUM YIELD EOS ALMOST IDENTICAL TO ALMOND OIL. FLOWERS ARE THE SOURCE
OF A SMOOTH, CARAMEL-COLORED HONEY WITH AN EXCELLENT NUTTY FLAVOR. ON LA PALMA, IN THE CANARY
ISLANDS, WHERE TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHTS OFTEN REFUEL, THERE’S A SPECIAL GOAT CHEESE THAT IS SMOKED OVER A
P
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FIRE FUELED WITH ALMOND SHELLS. SHELLS OF ALMOND (AND OTHER RELATED PRUNUS) ARE USED IN SOFT GRIT
BLASTING FOR MACHINE PARTS AND MOULDS IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES. I REMEMBER CHEWING THE GUM THAT
EXUDES FROM THE RELATED PEACH. THE GUM EXUDING FROM ALMOND TREES IS USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR
TRAGACANTH (BIB, FAC, PH2, WOI).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (ALMOND) — IN INDIA, TREES ARE RAISED FROM SEEDLINGS, THE SEEDS USUALLY HAVING A
CHILLING REQUIREMENT. SEEDS ARE SOWN IN NURSERIES, THE SEEDLINGS TRANSPLANTED AFTER ABOUT 1 YEAR.
FOR SPECIAL TYPES, AS IN THE U.S., SCIONS ARE BUDDED OR GRAFTED ON TO BITTER OR SWEET ALMOND, APRICOT,
MYROBALAN, PEACH, OR PLUM SEEDLINGS. TREES ARE PLANTED 6–8 M APART AND IRRIGATED, IN SPITE OF THEIR
DROUGHT TOLERANCE. APPLICATION OF NITROGENOUS AND/OR ORGANIC FERTILIZERS IS SAID TO IMPROVE YIELD.
TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED TO A MODIFIED LEADER SYSTEM. ALL TYPES ARE SELF-STERILE, SO CVS OR SEEDLINGS
SHOULD BE MIXED (NUT, WOI).
CHEMISTRY (ALMOND) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ALMOND. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
AMYGDALIN — ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTISPASMODIC; ANTITUSSIVE; BITTER; CYANOGENIC;
EXPECTORANT; TOXIC.
LYSINE — ANTIALKALOTIC; ANTIHERPETIC 0.5–3 G/DAY; ESSENTIAL; HYPOARGINANEMIC 250 MG/KG/; LD50
= 181 IVN MUS.
MUFAS — ANEMIAGENIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 21 ΜM; ANTILEUKOTRIENE-D4 IC50 =
21 ΜM; CHOLERETIC 5 ML/MAN; DERMATITIGENIC; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; PERCUTANEOSTIMULANT; LD50 = 230 IVN MUS; LDLO = 50 IVN CAT.
PRUNASIN — CYANOGENIC.
PUFAS — ANTIACNE; ANTIECZEMIC; ANTIMS; ANTIPOLYNEURITIC.
R
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
R
RHUS CORIARIA L. (ANACARDIACEAE)
SICILIAN SUMAC, SUMAC, TANNER’S SUMAC
MEDICINAL USES (SICILIAN SUMAC) — CONSIDERED ASTRINGENT AND TONIC (DEP).
INDICATIONS (SICILIAN SUMAC) — BACTERIA (1; FNF); BILIOUSNESS (F; DEP); CANDIDA (1; FNF); CHOLERA
(F; DEP); DIARRHEA (F; DEP; FNF); DYSENTERY (F; DEP; FNF); DYSPEPSIA (F; DEP; FNF); GASTROSIS
(F; EB49:406); GINGIVOSIS (F; DEP); HEMATEMESIS (F; DEP); HEMOPTYSIS (F; DEP); HEPATOSIS (1; FNF);
INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); LEUCORRHEA (F; DEP); OPHTHALMIA (F; DEP); SORE (F; DEP);
STOMACHACHE (F; EB49:406); ULCER (F; EB49:406; FNF); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; DEP).
SICILIAN SUMAC FOR DYSENTERY:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIDIARRHEIC: TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIDYSENTERIC: TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTISEPTIC: AVICULARIN; ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTISPASMODIC: QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIVIRAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ASTRINGENT: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• CANDIDICIDE: MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: ELLAGIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• HEPATOTONIC: QUERCITRIN
• PROTISTICIDE: MYRICITRIN
SICILIAN SUMAC FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIGASTRIC: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIULCER: QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
SICILIAN SUMAC FOR ULCER:
• ANALGESIC: GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; QUERCETIN;
QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
R
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; MYRICITRIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTISEPTIC: AVICULARIN; ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTISPASMODIC: QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN
• ANTIULCER: QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; TANNIC-ACID
• ASTRINGENT: ELLAGIC-ACID; GALLIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: GALLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (SICILIAN SUMAC) — FRUITS, CRUSHED TOGETHER WITH ORIGANUM SYRIACUM, ARE A MAIN
INGREDIENT OF A MIDDLE EASTERN SPICE MIXTURE CALLED “ZA’TAR.” IN SYRIA, BERRIES ARE SOAKED IN MILK.
IMMATURE FRUITS MAY BE USED AS A CAPER SUBSTITUTE (FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (SICILIAN SUMAC) — IN SICILY, IT IS GROWN AS A CULTIVAR WITH OTHER DROUGHT-TOLERANT
TREES, LIKE ALMOND, CAROB, AND PISTACHIO. SOMETIMES, THESE TREES ARE INTERCROPPED WITH OPUNTIA
FICUS-INDICA.
CHEMISTRY (SICILIAN SUMAC) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SICILIAN
SUMAC. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARSGRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ASTRAGALIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR IC30 = 1 ΜM, IC62 = 10 ΜM; ANTILEUKEMIC; EXPECTORANT;
HYPOTENSIVE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT.
AVICULARIN — ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR IC32 = 1 ΜM, IC84 = 10 ΜM; ANTISEPTIC; CYCLOOXYGENASE-ACTIVATOR 100 ΜM; DIURETIC.
MYRICETIN — ALLELOCHEMIC IC82 = 1 MM; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 20–500 ΜG/ML; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT IC52 = <1000 PPM DIET; ANTIGASTRIC; ANTIGINGIVITIC MIC = 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIGONADOTROPIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIHIV; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMUTAGENIC ID50 = 2–5 NM; ANTIOXIDANT IC99 = 200 PPM; ANTIOXIDANT 1.4 ΜM; ANTIPERIODONTIC MIC = 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIPLAQUE MIC =
20 ΜG/ML; ANTISEPTIC MIC = 20 ΜG/ML; ANTIVIRAL; APOPTOTIC 60 ΜM; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 150 ΜG/ML;
COMP-INHIBITOR; DIURETIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC; LARVISTAT IC50 = 2.6–3.5 MM/KG DIET; LIPOXYGENASEINHIBITOR; METALLOPROTEINASE-INHIBITOR; MUTAGENIC; NEP-INHIBITOR IC50 = >42 ΜM; OXIDASE-INHIBITOR; QUINONE-REDUCTASE-INDUCER 36 ΜM; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR IC50 = 11.9 ΜG/ML; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC50 = 11.9 ΜG/ML; TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR; VASODILATOR.
MYRICITRIN — ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = 500 ΜG/ML; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIMUTAGENIC ID50 = 10–40
NM; ANTITUMOR; CANDIDICIDE MIC = 400 ΜG/ML; CHOLERETIC; DIURETIC; PARAMECICIDE; PROTISTICIDE;
SPERMICIDE.
QUERCETIN — SEE ALSO ALPINIA OFFICINARUM.
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
S
SASSAFRAS ALBIDUM (NUTT.) NEES (LAURACEAE)
SASSAFRAS
SYNONYMS — LAURUS ALBIDA NUTT., SASSAFRAS OFFICINALE NEES & C. H. EBERM., S. VARIIFOLIUM (SALISB.)
KUNTZE.
MEDICINAL USES (SASSAFRAS) — EARLY ON, SASSAFRAS WAS ALSO CALLED AGUE WOOD, CINNAMON WOOD,
AND SMELLING TREE. ERICHSEN-BROWN (1989) SAYS THAT, AS EARLY AS 1575–1577, “THE SPANIARDS DID
BEGIN TO CURE THEMSELVES WITH THE WATER OF THIS TREE AND IT DID IN THEM GREATE EFFECTES, THAT IT IS
ALMOST INCREDIBLE, FOR WITH THE NAUGHTIE MEATES AND DRINKYING OF THE RAWE WATERS, AND SLEPYING
IN THE DEWES, THE MOST PARTS OF THEM CAME TO FALL INTO CONTINUAL AGUES.” I KNOW OF NO BETTER
SOURCE OF EARLY AMERICAN INFORMATION ON THE EASTERN MEDICINAL PLANTS THAN ERICHSEN-BROWN, IN
HER EXCELLENT MEDICINAL AND OTHER USES OF NORTH AMERICAN PLANTS (1989). ACCORDING TO DAVID
WINSTON, PART CHEROKEE HIMSELF, CHEROKEE TRADITIONALLY USED SASSAFRAS AS A CARMINATIVE AND
EYEWASH, FOR GOUT, RHEUMATISM, AND SKIN PROBLEMS (WINSTON, 2001). TEA, MADE FROM THE OIL OR
ROOT BARK WAS APPLIED TO CANCER, CORNS, OSTEOSARCOMAS, TUMORS, AND WENS. SASSAFRAS TEA WAS USED
IN APPALACHIA AS A DIAPHORETIC AND DIURETIC FOR BRONCHITIS, GASTRITIS, AND INDIGESTION, AND TO SLOW
DOWN THE MILK OF NURSING MOTHERS. SOUTH CAROLINA BLACKS GAVE IT TO CHILDREN TO “BRING OUT THE
MEASLES.” PITH OF SASSAFRAS WAS ONCE OFFICIAL IN THE U.S. AS A MUCILAGINOUS DEMULCENT, USED FOR
EYE INFLAMMATION. THE HERB IS ALTERATIVE, ANALGESIC, ANTISEPTIC, AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, DEPURATIVE,
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DIAPHORETIC, DEMULCENT, DIURETIC, EMMENAGOGUE, AND STIMULANT. EXTERNALLY, SASSAFRAS HAS BEEN
USED AS A RUBEFACIENT ON BRUISES, RHEUMATISM, SPRAINS, AND SWELLINGS. SASSAFRAS OIL IS APPLIED
EXTERNALLY AS A PEDICULICIDE. ONCE USED IN DENTISTRY TO DISINFECT ROOT CANALS, SASSAFRAS OIL IS ALSO
USED TO RELIEVE STINGS AND BITES. TUCKER ET AL. (1994) DREDGE UP SOME INTERESTING INDICATIONS THAT
SENT ME SCURRYING TO WEBSTER’S. “IT HEALETH OPILATIONS. IT COMFORTETH THE LIVER AND STOMACH AND
DOTH DISOPILATE” (NOT THERE IN WEBSTER’S, DEFINED AS CHAGAS DISEASE IN MY DORLAND’S MEDICAL
DICTIONARY; BUT THE ENGLISH SPELLING WITH A DOUBLE P, OPPILATION MERE CONSTIPATION). SASSAFRAS
EXTRACTS SHOW VERY GOOD ACTIVITY AGAINST ANCYLOSTOMA AND STRONGYLOIDES.
THERE IS ONE INTERESTING CANCER “CURE,” THAT ECHOS SOME OF THE CANCER-PREVENTATIVE SUGGESTIONS
RECENTLY EMANATING FROM CONGRESS AND THE NIH… “LET HIM DRINK SASSAFRAS TEA EVERY MORNING, LIVE
TEMPERATELY, UPON LIGHT AND INNOCENT FOOD, AND ABSTAIN ENTIRELY FROM STRONG LIQUOR. THE WAY TO PREVENT
THIS CALAMITY, IS, TO BE VERY SPARING IN EATING PORK, TO FORBEAR ALL SALT, AND HIGH SEASON’D MEATS, AND
LIVE CHIEFLY UPON THE GARDEN, THE ORCHARD, AND THE HEN-HOUSE” (CANCER IN VIRGINIA, 1734, AS QUOTED
BY LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS, 1977). AFTER QUOTING THE “SPRING ODE” BY DONALD ROBERT PERRY MARQUIS,
“FILL ME WITH SASSAFRAS, NURSE, AND JUNIPER JUICE! LET ME SEE IF I’M STILL ANY USE!” TYLER (1994) WAXED
PESSIMISTIC ON SASSAFRAS, “AS A RESULT OF RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN THE EARLY 1960S, SAFROLE WAS RECOGNIZED
AS A CARCINOGENIC AGENT IN RATS AND MICE.” THE MAJOR FLAVORING CONSTITUENT IN SASSAFRAS ROOT BARK,
SAFROLE, IS IDENTIFIED AS A “LOW GRADE HEPATOCARCINOGEN.” NO ONE REALLY KNOWS JUST HOW HARMFUL IT IS
TO HUMAN BEINGS, BUT IT HAS BEEN ESTIMATED THAT ONE CUP OF STRONG SASSAFRAS TEA COULD CONTAIN AS MUCH
AS 200 MG OF SAFROLE, MORE THAN FOUR TIMES THE MINIMAL AMOUNT BELIEVED HAZARDOUS TO MAN IF CONSUMED
ON A REGULAR BASIS.” BASED ON BRUCE AMES’, HERP INDEX (AMES ET AL., 1987), I CALCULATED THAT A CAN
OF OLD FASHIONED ROOT BEER WITH ITS SAFROLE, WAS ABOUT 1
/13TH AS CARCINOGENIC AS A CAN OF BREW, WITH ITS
ETHANOL. IT WAS BANNED IN ROOT BEER, AND THE FDA, IN 1976, BANNED INTERSTATE MARKETING OF SASSAFRAS
FOR SASSAFRAS TEA. BUT REMEMBER, THE ORAL LD50 FOR SAFROLE IN RATS IS 1950 MG/KG BODY WEIGHT, WITH
MAJOR SYMPTOMS INCLUDING ATAXIA, DEPRESSION, AND DIARRHEA, DEATH OCCURRING IN 4–5 DAYS. THE ORAL
LD50 FOR CAFFEINE IS LESS THAN 10% THAT OF SAFROLE. STILL, I FEAR THAT SAFROLE MAY BE MORE DANGEROUS
THAN CAFFEINE (DUKE, 1985). SASSAFRAS OIL’S LD50 IS ABOUT THE SAME AS SAFROLE, 1520–2370 MG/KG
ORALLY IN RAT, TEN TIMES LESS TOXIC THAN CAFFEINE, AT LEAST UNDER THESE CIRCUMSTANCES.
MY HUNDRED-YEAR-OLD GRANDMOTHER DIDN’T KNOW THAT SASSAFRAS WAS CARCINOGENIC, BUT SHE WAS
MODERATE IN ALL THINGS, EVEN SASSAFRAS TEA, AND COULD HAVE FOUNDED THE WCTU. I NEVER KNEW HER
HUSBAND, MY MATERNAL GRANDFATHER, BUT MY COUSIN SAID GRANDPA TRUSS TOOK TWO HIGHBALLS BEFORE
DINNER AND THEN SAT DOWN WITH THE FAMILY AROUND A STERN FAMILY DINNER. IRONICALLY, SASSAFRAS IS SAID
TO BE ANTAGONISTIC TO THE NARCOTIC EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL.
LIVING FOR A CENTURY,
GRAMMA SIPPED HER SASSAFRAS TEA,
PERHAPS SHE WOUDN’T’VE GROWN SO OLD,
HAD SHE BEEN TOLD ’BOUT OLD SAFROLE,
CARCINOGENICITEA!
INDICATIONS (SASSAFRAS) — ACNE (F; APA; CRC); AGUE (F; CEB; DEM); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ANOREXIA
(F; DEM); ARTHROSIS (F; FAD; SPI); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BITE (F; BOW); BRONCHOSIS (1; APA; CRC;
FAD; FNF); BRUISE (F; CRC; DEM; FEL); BURN (F; DEM); CANCER (F; CRC); CANCER, BONE (F; JLH);
CATARACT (F; DEM); CATARRH (F; CRC; PHR); CHILDBIRTH (F; DEM; FEL); COLD (1; DEM; FAD; FNF);
CONGESTION (1; FNF); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; CRC); CONSTIPATION (F; DEM; SPI); COUGH (1; DEM; FNF);
CRAMP (1; FNF); CYSTOSIS (F; DEM; FEL); DERMATOSIS (F; APA; CRC; FAD; PH2); DIARRHEA (F; DEM);
DROPSY (F; CRC); DYSENTERY (F; CRC); DYSMENORRHEA (F; CRC; FEL); DYSPEPSIA (F; DEM); DYSURIA
(F; DEM); ENTEROSIS (F; FAD; FEL); FEVER (1; CAN; DEM; FAD; FNF); FLU (1; APA; FNF); FUNGUS
(1; FNF); GALLSTONE (F; DEM); GANGRENE (F; FEL); GASTROSIS (F; CRC; SPI); GLEET (F; CRC; FEL);
GONORRHEA (F; CRC; FEL); GOUT (F; APA; FAD; HH2); GRAVEL (F; SPI); HEART (F; DEM); HEPATOSIS
(F; CRC; FAD; SPI); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (F; APA; CRC; FAD); IMPOTENCE (F; DEM); INFECTION (1;
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
FNF); INFERTILITY (F; CEB; SPI); INFLAMMATION (1; CRC; FNF; PH2); LICE (1; BOW); MALARIA (F; CEB);
MASTOSIS (F; APA); MEASLES (F; APA; CRC; DEM); MUCOSOSIS (F; PH2); MYCOSIS (1; FNF); NAUSEA
(F; DEM); NEPHROSIS (F; CRC; FAD; FEL); OBESITY (F; DEM); OPHTHALMIA (F; CRC; DEM; FAD;
FEL); OSTEOSARCOMA (F; JLH); PAIN (1; APA; CAN; DEM; FNF); PAROTOSIS (F; CRC); PNEUMONIA (F;
CRC); POISON IVY (F; APA; FEL); PUERPERIUM (F; APA); PULMONOSIS (F; FAD); RASH (F; DEM);
RESPIROSIS (F; CRC; HH2); RHEUMATISM (1; APA; CAN; FAD; FEL; FNF; HH2; PH2); SCARLET FEVER
(F; DEM); SCROFULA (F; FEL); SORE (F; DEM); SORE THROAT (F; DEM); SPRAIN (F; CRC; FEL); STOMACHACHE (F; DEM; FAD); STONE (F; SPI); SWELLING (F; CRC; DEM; FEL); SYPHILIS (F; APA; CRC;
FEL; PHR; PH2); TAPEWORM (F; DEM); TYPHUS (F; CEB; CRC); UTI (F; PHR; PH2); VD (F; CRC;
PH2); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WORM (F; DEM); WOUND (F; DEM).
SASSAFRAS FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; RETICULINE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; SAFROLE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CITRAL; LINALOOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ANETHOLE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; DELTA-CADINENE;
EUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; RETICULINE; SAFROLE; SILVER; TERPINEN-4-
OL; THUJONE
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CITRAL; ELEMICIN; LINALOOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; MYRISTICIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: BOLDINE; CAMPHENE; EUGENOL; GAMMA-TERPINENE; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE
• ANTIPYRETIC: APIOLE; ASARONE; BOLDINE; EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ANETHOLE; AROMADENDRENE; BETA-PINENE; CAMPHOR; CITRAL; EUGENOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL; THUJONE
• ANTISTRESS: ELEMICIN; MYRISTICIN
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; P-CYMENE
• BRONCHORELAXANT: CITRAL; LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-PINENE; ANETHOLE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR; CITRAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ANETHOLE
SASSAFRAS FOR RHEUMATISM:
• ANALGESIC: CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; RETICULINE
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; SAFROLE
• ANTIEDEMIC: BOLDINE; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BOLDINE; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; MYRISTICIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: EUGENOL
• ANTIRHEUMATALGIC: P-CYMENE
• ANTISPASMODIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ANETHOLE; APIOLE; ASARONE; CAMPHOR; CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRISTICIN; RETICULINE; THUJONE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL
• COUNTERIRRITANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; CAMPHOR; THUJONE
• MYORELAXANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ASARONE
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OTHER USES (SASSAFRAS) — COLONISTS USED SASSAFRAS STICKS AS HENROOSTS TO REPEL LICE, FOR BEDSTEADS
TO KEEP AWAY BEDBUGS, LONG LASTING DUGOUTS, OX-YOKES, BARRELS, AND FENCE POSTS. TUCKER ET AL.
(1994) RECALL THE STORY OF SOME EARLY ROANOKE VIRGINIANS WHO, HAVING TRAVELED OUT OF REACH OF
THEIR CACHE OF FOOD, LIVED FIRST OFF A SOUP OF SASSAFRAS AND GOD, FINALLY SIMPLY ON SASSAFRAS SOUP.
FOLLOWING HIS VISIT TO ROANOKE IN 1586, SIR FRANCES DRAKE TOOK HOME A LOAD OF SASSAFRAS, THE
“WONDROUS ROOT WHICH KEPT THE STARVING ALIVE AND IN FAIRE GOOD SPIRIT” (SPI). ONCE USED TO MAKE
“GODFREY’S CORDIAL,” A MIXTURE OF OPIUM AND SASSAFRAS. THE OIL IS ALSO USED TO FLAVOR DENTIFRICES,
MASTICATORIES, MOUTHWASHES, SOAPS, CANDIES, ROOT BEERS, AND “SARSAPARILLAS,” AS WELL AS TOBACCOS.
TWIGS USED FOR CLEANING THE TEETH (LIL). A CONDIMENT IS PREPARED BY BOILING THE DRIED ROOT BARK
WITH SUGAR AND WATER UNTIL IT FORMS A THICK PASTE (FAC). ROOTS ARE ADDED TO MAPLE SAP, OR
SWEETENED WITH SUGAR, AND BREWED INTO A PLEASANT TEA. ROOT BARK TEA, MIXED WITH MILK AND SUGAR,
WAS ONCE CALLED “SALOOP.” I GREATLY ENJOY A TEA MADE FROM SASSAFRAS ROOTS AND SUMAC BERRIES ALL
WINTER LONG IN MARYLAND. STRONG TEA CAN BE MADE INTO JELLY, ESPECIALLY IF MUCILAGINOUS LEAVES
ARE EXTRACTED AS WELL, BUT THAT’S FOR SUMMER TIME. TWO OR THREE LEAVES IN A GLASS OF WATER YIELD
A MUCILAGINOUS BEVERAGE. YOUNG LEAVES ARE USED IN SALADS, OR DRIED AND POWDERED TO FORM FILE
POWDER, USED IN CREOLE COOKING FOR THICKENING SOUPS, STEWS, CHOWDERS, AND GRAVIES. MY “FILÉ
JUMBO” HAS SUMAC BERRIES, BASIL LEAVES, WILD GINGER, WITH LEAVES OF SASSAFRAS; MY “SAFROLE NO-NO”
HAS THE ROOTS OF SASSAFRAS, WITH THE SAFROLE-CONTAINING BARK INTACT. SOUTH CAROLINA BLACKS MAKE
A SOUP FROM YOUNG SASSAFRAS LEAVES WITH VIOLA PALMATA AND V. SEPTEMLOBA. YOUNG LEAF BUDS ARE
ALSO EATEN. FLOWERS WERE USED IN TEAS OR BREWED INTO BEERS. ROOT BEER CLASSICALLY CONTAINED
SASSAFRAS ROOT BARK (SPI). SAFROLE-FREE EXTRACTS GRAS AT 10–290 PPM; LEAVES GRAS AT 30,000
PPM. SASSAFRAS WOOD IS COMBINED WITH HICKORY WOOD TO SMOKE ANOTHER OF MY FAVORITE SINS,
SOUTHERN DRY-CURED, COUNTRY HAMS. THE BARK EXTRACT DYES WOOL ORANGE (DUKE, 1985, FAC, LIL).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (SASSAFRAS) — I SUPPOSE THERE ARE STUDIES ON HOW TO CULTIVATE SASSAFRAS, BUT WHERE I
COME FROM THE BIRDS ARE MUCH BETTER AT PLANTING THE SEED OF THIS PERENNIAL TREE THAN I AM, DROPPING
THE SEEDS, WELL FERTILIZED, BELOW THEIR FENCE ROW PERCHES. ONCE, ON A COLD WINTER DAY, I HASTILY
UPROOTED A TREE OVER 2 IN THICK AT GROUND LEVEL, TOOK IT HOME, CUT OFF SEVERAL BIG PIECES OF ROOT FOR
MY ROOT BOOSTER TEA, AND THEN PLANTED THE REMAINS. THAT LITTLE SAPLING CAME BACK THE FOLLOWING YEAR,
BETTER LUCK THAN I’VE HAD WITH THE SMALL YEARLINGS I HAVE REPLANTED ON OCCASION. WE’VE NOT BEEN
REAL LUCKY WITH THE RELATED SPICEBUSH, LINDERA BENZOIN. HARDY ZONE 4–8 (BOWN, 2001). TUCKER AND
DEBAGGIO’S (2000) SAY SASSAFRAS IS HARDY TO ZONE 5, DOING BEST IN FULL SUN, IN MOIST BUT NOT CONSTANTLY
WET, WELL-DRAINED, RICH ORGANIC SOILS. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS NEUTRAL TO ACID SOIL, IN SUN OR SHADE.
THEY RECOMMEND STARTING FROM SEED (WHICH MAY TAKE 2 YEARS TO GERMINATE), OR TRANSPLANTING
SEEDLINGS BEFORE THEY DEVELOP THEIR TAPROOTS (TAD). I HAVE HAD GOOD LUCK WITH ROOT SUCKERS AND
STUMP SPROUTS. AS WITH SARSAPARILLA, I FEEL A GOOD STAND COULD EASILY YIELD 1–2 TONS/A ROOT.
CHEMISTRY (SASSAFRAS) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SASSAFRAS. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ANETHOLE — SEE ALSO OSMORHIZA SPP.
ASARONE — ANTICONVULSANT; ANTIELLEPTIC; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISPASMODIC; CARDIODEPRESSANT; CNSDEPRESSANT; EMETIC; FUNGICIDE; HYPOTHALMIC-DEPRESSANT; MUTAGENIC; MYORELAXANT; PSYCHOACTIVE;
SEDATIVE; TRANQUILIZER; LD50 = 275 IPR GPG; LD50 = 310 IPR MUS; LD50 = 417 ORL MUS.
SAFROLE — ANESTHETIC; ANTIAGGREGANT IC50 = 110 ΜM; ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTICANCER; ANTICONVULSANT;
ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISEPTIC; CARCINOGENIC; CARMINATIVE; CNS-DEPRESSANT; CNS-STIMULANT; CALCIUMANTAGONIST IC50 = 58 ΜM; CONTROLLED; CYTOCHROME-P-450-INDUCER; CYTOCHROME-P-488-INDUCER;
DNA-BINDER; HEPATOCARCINOGEN; HEPATOREGENERATIVE; HEPATOTOXIC; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE MLC
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
= 1 MG/ML; NEUROTOXIC; PEDICULICIDE; PSYCHOACTIVE; TREMORIGENIC; LD50 = 1950 ORL RAT; LD50 =
2350 ORL MUS; LD50 = 3400 ORL MUS.
SCHINUS TEREBINTHIFOLIUS RADDI (ANACARDIACEAE)
BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE, CHRISTMASBERRY TREE, FLORIDA HOLLY
MEDICINAL (BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE) — REPORTED TO BE ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTISEPTIC, ANTIVIRAL, APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, STIMULANT, AND TONIC. THE BALSAM, BARK, FRUITS, AND LEAVES ARE USED IN FOLK REMEDIES
FOR TUMORS, ESPECIALLY OF THE FOOT, IN BRAZIL. BRAZILIANS POULTICE THE DRIED LEAVES ON ULCERS. THE LEAF
AND FRUIT, BOTH SAID TO POSSESS ANTIBIOTIC ACTIVITY, HAVE BEEN USED TO BATHE SORES AND WOUNDS. THE
BARK DECOCTION IS ADDED TO THE BATH WATER OF RHEUMATIC AND SCIATIC PATIENTS. MACERATED ROOT JUICE
IS APPLIED TO CONTUSIONS AND/OR GANGLIONIC TUMORS (CRC).
FRUITS “CAN WREAK HAVOC ON THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, WITH SUCH AFTER EFFECTS AS VOMITING,
DIARRHEA, AND HEMORRHOIDS…EXTREMELY UPSET STOMACH…VIOLENT HEADACHES, SWOLLEN EYELIDS, AND
SHORTNESS OF BREATH. BIRDS ARE SAID TO BECOME INTOXICATED WHEN THEY EAT THE ‘PEPPERS’ AND FISH DIE
IN PONDS BORDERED BY THE BRAZILIAN PEPPER PLANT” (CRC). HORSES MAY DEVELOP FATAL COLIC UPON
INGESTING THE BERRIES (CRC).
INDICATIONS (BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE) — ADENOSIS (F; CRC); ARTHROSIS (F; CRC); ATONY (F; CRC);
BACTERIA (1; CRC; FNF); BRONCHOSIS (1; CRC; FNF); BRUISE (F; CRC); CANCER (F; FNF); CHILL (F;
CRC); DERMATOSIS (F; CRC); DIARRHEA (F; CRC); ENTEROSIS (F; CRC); FRIGIDITY (F; CRC); GANGLION
(F; CRC); GOUT (F; CRC); HEMOPTYSIS (F; CRC); IMPOTENCE (F; CRC); INFECTION (1; CRC; FNF;
WOI); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); PAIN (F; CRC); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC; WOI); SCIATICA (F; CRC); SORE
(F; CRC; HH2); SWELLING (F; CRC); SYPHILIS (F; CRC; WOI); TENDINITIS (F; CRC); TUMOR (F; CRC);
ULCER (1; CRC; FNF); VIRUS (F; CRC; FNF); WOUND (F; CRC; HH2).
BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE FOR CANCER:
• ANTIHIV: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTICANCER: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIESTROGENIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIFIBROSARCOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKEMIC: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: QUERCETIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROLIFERANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTITUMOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• APOPTOTIC: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARDOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYTOTOXIC: QUERCETIN
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: QUERCETIN
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• P450-INDUCER: QUERCETIN
• PTK-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR: QUERCETIN
• TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• TYROSINE-KINASE-INHIBITOR: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTISEPTIC: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN
• ANTIVIRAL: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• BACTERISTAT: QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARDOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: QUERCETIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
OTHER USES (BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE) —ACCORDING TO THE WALL STREET JOURNAL, MUCH RECENT MATERIAL
SOLD HERE AT MORE THAN $125/KILO AS “PINK PEPPERCORNS” OR “RED PEPPERCORNS” IS, IN FACT, NOTHING
MORE THAN FRUITS OF THE BRAZILIAN PEPPER PLANT. THIS TREE WAS INTRODUCED TO FLORIDA AS AN ORNAMENTAL,
BUT NOW MANY FLORIDIANS REGRET THE INTRODUCTION. SAID TO BE A GOOD HONEY PLANT, MAKING THE PLANT
MORE APPEALING TO BEEKEEPERS THAN TO THOSE WHO ARE ALLERGIC TO THE PLANT. REPORTS ON THE MARGINAL
PULPING POTENTIAL ARE INCLUDED IN AN INTERESTING ACCOUNT BY MORTON (1977). GOATS GRAZE THE FOLIAGE
WITH IMPUNITY, BUT CATTLE MAY DEVELOP ENTERITIS. STEM IS SOURCE OF A RESIN CALLED “BALSAMO DE
MISSIONES” (CRC).
CHEMISTRY (BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN
BRAZILIAN PEPPER TREE. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALPHA-PINENE — SEE ALSO AMOMUM COMPACTUM.
AMENTOFLAVONE — ACE-INHIBITOR IC60–90 = 333 ΜG/ML; ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR IC25 = 10
ΜM; ANESTHETIC; ANTIBRADYKINIC; ANTIEDEMIC >3
/4 INDOMETHACIN; ANTIHIV IC97 = 200 ΜG/ML, IC50
= 119 ΜG/ML; ANTIINFLAMMATORY >3
/4 INDOMETHACIN; ANTILEUKEMIC IC50 = 10 ΜM; ANTIOXIDANT;
ANTIPEROXIDANT IC50 = 38 ΜM; ANTIULCER; ANTIVIRAL IC50 = 10 ΜM; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASEINHIBITOR (5–10 × PAPAVERINE); FUNGICIDE; PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR.
BETA-PINENE — SEE ALSO AMOMUM COMPACTUM.
CARDOL — ANTIFILARIAL; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC28–98 = 10 ΜM; MOLLUSCICIDE ED = 7–15 PPM;
TOXIC; TYROSINASE-INHIBITOR.
CARENE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTISEPTIC; FUNGICIDE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 4800 MG/KG ORL RAT.
DELTA-3-CARENE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IPR; ANTISEPTIC; DERMATITIGENIC; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT.
TERPINOLENE — ALLELOCHEMIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTINITROSAMINIC; DEODORANT; FUNGICIDE; LD50 = 4390
MG/KG ORL RAT.
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SESAMUM INDICUM L. (PEDALIACEAE)
BENI, BENNESEED, SESAME
SYNONYMS — S. MULAYANUM N. C. NAIR, S. ORIENTALE L.
MEDICINAL USES (SESAME) — MORE SPICE THAN MEDICINE IN MY BOOK, STILL IT HAS SOME STRONG
MEDICINAL FOLK LORE AND IS GENERALLY VIEWED AS A HEALTH FOOD. MEDICINALLY, SEEDS ARE EMOLLIENT,
DIURETIC, TONIC, LACTOGENIC, AND USEFUL IN THE TREATMENT OF PILES. SEED DECOCTION IS USED FOR EMMENAGOGUE AND AS A POULTICE APPLIED TO BURNS AND ULCERS. COMBINED WITH LINSEED, THE SEED DECOCTION
IS USED AS AN APHRODISIAC. SEEDS AND OIL ARE DEMULCENT AND USED IN DYSENTERY AND URINARY COMPLAINTS
WITH OTHER MEDICINES. LEAF INFUSION USED AS DEMULCENT IN SOUTHERN U.S. LEAVES CONTAIN A GUMMY
MATTER AND, WHEN SUBMERGED IN WATER, FORM A MUCILAGE-LIKE SUBSTANCE ALSO USED IN THE TREATMENT
OF DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY. THE LEAF INFUSION IS ALSO SAID TO PROMOTE HAIR GROWTH. IN INDIA, THE LEAVES
ARE USED FOR BLADDER, EYE, KIDNEY, AND SKIN COMPLAINTS. OIL IS ALLOWED AS SUBSTITUTE FOR OLIVE OIL IN
PHARMACEUTICALS BUT IS PURGATIVE IN LARGE DOSES. THE SEED OIL IS A FOLK REMEDY FOR CACOETHES,
ABDOMINAL TUMORS, AND INDURATED TUMORS. THE OIL OF THE WHOLE PLANT BEATEN WITH BOILED EGG IS SAID
TO HELP TUMORS OF THE EYE. A CATAPLASM OF THE SEED IS SAID TO HELP INDURATED TUMORS. THE LEAF, USED
IN A POULTICE OR FORMENTATION, IS SAID TO REMEDY PAINFUL TUMORS (CFR). RINZLER (1990) NOTES THAT
OIL OF SESAME SEED, LIKE MANY SEED OILS, IS A GOOD SOURCE OF TOCOPHEROL, WHICH BLOCKS THE FORMATION
OF CARCINOGENIC NITROSAMINES IN LAB ANIMALS, PROTECTS THE LINING OF THE LUNGS FROM SOME AIR POLLUTANTS,
AND MAY DETER OXIDATIVE DETERIORATION OF CELLS. SHE DENIES ANY HUMAN STUDIES DEMONSTRATING SUCH
ACTIVITIES IN HUMANS, OR THAT VITAMIN E ALLEVIATES MENOPAUSAL HOT FLASHES, VAGINAL DRYNESS, OR
INFERTILITY, OR THAT IT IMPROVES MALE SEXUAL PERFORMANCE (RIN). MORE DOCTORS TAKE VITAMIN E THAN
PRESCRIBE IT. THE HEALTH FOOD PEOPLE MIGHT PREFER THE VEGETABLE OILS WITH THEIR TOCOPHEROLS, MAYBE
EVEN THE PALM OILS WITH THEIR TOCOTRIENOLS. DIETARY SESAME SEEDS ELEVATE THE CONCENTRATIONS OF BOTH
TOCOPHEROLS AND TOCOTRIENOLS IN ADIPOSE TISSUE AND SKIN, BUT NOT IN PLASMA OR OTHER TISSUES
(X11694614).
WEED (2002) SUGGESTS HEAVY CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN SPICES WHEN ESTROGEN LEVELS ARE DOWN.
SEEDS LIKE CARAWAY, CELERY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, POPPY AND SESAME, MUSTARD AND ANISE, FENNEL AND
FENUGREEK ALL CONTAIN PHYTOESTROGENS, AS DO THEIR OILS, SAYS WEED. SHE SUGGESTS USING THESE SEEDS
“LAVISHLY” WHEN COOKING OR MAKING TEA WITH ANY ONE OF THEM, DRINKING 3–4 CUPS A DAY “FOR BEST
RESULTS” (WEED, 2002).
INDICATIONS (SESAME) — ALOPECIA (F; DAA; JFM); AMENORRHEA (F; FEL; KAP; WOI); ANEURIA (F;
DAA); ARTHROSIS (1; FNF; JFM; KAB); ASTHMA (F; KAB); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BLEEDING (F; KAB);
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BOIL (F; BOW); BRONCHOSIS (1; FNF; JFM); BURN (1; FNF; KAB; WOI); CACHEXIA (F; DAA);
CACOETHES (F; JLH); CANCER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, ABDOMEN (F; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (F; JLH);
CANCER, COLON (F; JLH); CANCER, EYE (F; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (F; JLH); CARIES (F; BOW); CATARRH
(F; FEL; JFM; KAP); CHOLERA (F; KAP); COLD (1; DAA; FNF; JFM); CONDYLOMATA (F; DAA);
CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; JFM); CONSTIPATION (F; DAA; KAB; PH2); COUGH (F; KAB; WOI); CRAMP (1;
FNF); CYSTOSIS (F; FEL; KAP); DERMATOSIS (1; FEL; FNF; JFM; PH2); DIABETES (F; BOW); DIARRHEA
(1; FEL; FNF; JFM); DIZZINESS (F; BOW); DYSCHEZIA (F; PH2); DYSENTERY (F; FEL; KAB; SKJ);
DYSMENORRHEA (F; DAA; KAP; WOI); DYSURIA (F; KAB; SKJ); EDEMA (1; FNF; JFM); ENTEROSIS
(F; JLH; KAP); FUNGUS (1; FNF); GASTROSIS (F; JLH); GOUT (F; KAB); GRAY HAIR (F; DAA; KAB);
HEADACHE (F; BOW); HEMORRHOID (F; DAA; KAB; SKJ; WOI); HEPATOSIS (1; BOW; FNF); HIV (1;
FNF); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (F; DAA); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); IMPOTENCE (F; DAA); INDURATION
(F; JLH); INFECTION (1; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF; JFM; KAB); LAXATIVE (F; JFM); MALARIA (F;
KAB); MASTOSIS (F; JLH); MENORRHAGIA (F; KAB); MIGRAINE (F; KAB); NEPHROSIS (F; FEL); NEUROSIS
(F; DAA); NEUROPARALYSIS (F; DAA); OPHTHALMIA (F; FEL; JLH); OSTEOPOROSIS (F; BOW); OTORRHEA
(F; DAA); PAIN (1; FNF); PROCTORRHAGIA (F; WOI); PULMONOSIS (F; KAB); RESPIROSIS (F; KAB);
RHEUMATOSIS (1; FNF; JFM; PH2); SCAB (F; PH2); SCABIES (F; KAB); SMALLPOX (F; KAB); SNAKEBITE
(F; KAB); SORE (F; DAA; SKJ; WOI); SORE THROAT (F; KAB); SPLENOSIS (F; KAB); STRANGURY (F;
KAB; KAP); SWELLING (F; PH2); SYPHILIS (F; KAB); TINNITUS (F; BOW); TUMOR (1; FNF); URETHROSIS
(F; FEL); UTEROSIS (F; DAA); UTERORRHAGIA (F; JFM); VD (F; KAB); VERTIGO (F; DAA; KAB); VIRUS
(1; FNF); WART (1; DAA; JLH; JAC7:405).
SESAME FOR CANCER:
• 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIEBV: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• ANTIHIV: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; SALICYLATES
• ANTICANCER: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; FOLIC-ACID;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHENOL; SQUALENE; TRANS-FERULIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID
• ANTICERVICALDYSPLASIC: FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID;
VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTILEUKEMIC: ASARININ; SESAMIN; VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• ANTIMETAPLASTIC: FOLIC-ACID
• ANTIMETASTATIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID;
SAPONINS; SESAMINOL; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• ANTIOXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHENOL; PINORESINOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SESAMIN; SESAMINOL; SESAMOL; SESAMOLIN; SESAMOLINOL; SQUALENE; TANNIC-ACID; TRANS-FERULIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIPOLYP: FOLIC-ACID
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIPROLACTIN: PYRIDOXINE
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTIRADIATION: PYRIDOXINE
• ANTITUMOR: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; NEPETIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SQUALENE; VANILLIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTIVIRAL: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: SQUALENE
• CYTOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID
• CYTOTOXIC: ALPHA-AMYRIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; TANNIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; SESAMIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID;
FOLIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SQUALENE; TANNIC-ACID
• INTERFERONOGENIC: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; SQUALENE; VERBASCOSIDE
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID
• PKC-INHIBITOR: VERBASCOSIDE
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• SUNSCREEN: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; PABA; SQUALENE
• TOCOPHEROL-SYNERGIST: SESAMIN
SESAME FOR DERMATOSIS:
• ANALGESIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; PHENOL; PYRIDOXINE;
VERBASCOSIDE
• ANESTHETIC: GUAIACOL; PHENOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ASARININ; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CYCLOARTENOL; CYCLOEUCALENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; GUAIACOL; HEXENAL; O-COUMARIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PABA; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SESAMIN; SQUALENE; TANNIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTIDERMATITIC: BIOTIN; GUAIACOL; PYRIDOXINE
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: ALPHA-AMYRIN; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CYCLOARTENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES; VANILLIC-ACID;
VERBASCOSIDE
• ANTISEPTIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; GUAIACOL; HEXANAL; HEXENAL; OXALIC-ACID; PHENOL; TANNIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• ASTRINGENT: TANNIC-ACID
• FUNGICIDE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; HEXENAL; O-COUMARIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; VERBASCOSIDE
• IMMUNOMODULATOR: SAPONINS
OTHER USES (SESAME) — SESAME SEED ARE EATEN DRY, TOASTED, SPRINKLED ON BREADS, CAKES, COOKIES,
CRACKERS, HAMBURGER BUNS, FERMENTED INTO TEMPEH, MADE INTO NUT MILKS AND SEED YOGURT, OR USED
FOR HALAVA AND OTHER CONFECTIONS. CRUSHED SEEDS, HULLED OR UNHULLED, CONSTITUTE SESAME PASTE, SESAME
BUTTER, AND TAHINI. THEY SERVE TO A LESSER EXTENT IN CANDY, CONFECTIONS, AND IN MAKING A REFRESHING
BEVERAGE, CALLED “HORCHATA.” BENNE WAFERS, CRISP COOKIES SPRINKLED WITH SESAME SEEDS, HAVE BEEN
POPULAR IN THE LOW COUNTRY OF SOUTH CAROLINA SINCE COLONIAL TIMES. ROASTED SEEDS EMPLOYED AS A
FLAVORING IN ORIENTAL CUISINE. IN WEST AFRICA AND THE SOUTHERN U.S., SESAME SEED MEAL IS USED FOR
THICKENING SOUPS AND STEWS. GOMASHIO, OR SESAME SALT, IS A SEASONING MADE OF THE ROASTED, GROUND
SEEDS, MIXED WITH SALT. SESAME SPROUTS ARE EATEN IN SALADS. THE LEAVES ARE ALSO EATEN RAW IN SALADS,
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
COOKED AS A GREEN, OR IN BEVERAGES AND SOUPS. SESAME BUTTER, OR TAHINI, IS RATHER REMINISCENT OF
PEANUT BUTTER. RINZLER TELLS US HOW TO MAKE A HALF CUP TAHINI: GRIND 2 TBSP IN BLENDER UNTIL SMOOTH,
ADDING 1/2 TSP SESAME OIL, 1/4 TSP SALT, SLOWLY POUR IN 1/4 CUP TEPID WATER. AND TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO
(2000) REMIND US THAT SESAME OIL WAS ANCIENTLY EXPRESSED IN URARTU (NOW ARMENIA) AS EARLY AS
3900 B.P. (TAD). SEEDS, WHICH CONTAIN 45–55% OIL AND 24–29% PROTEIN, ARE SOURCES OF BENE, TEEL,
OR GINGILI OIL, WHICH IS EDIBLE, FIXED, AND SEMI-DRYING, USED IN COOKING, SHORTENING, MARGARINE, AS
AN ILLUMINATING OIL, AS A VEHICLE IN PHARMACEUTICALS, INSECTICIDES, SOAPS, PAINTS, LUBRICANTS, COSMETICS,
AND AS A SYNERGIST FOR PYRETHRUM. OIL IS SOMETIMES MIXED WITH OLIVE OIL. PRESS CAKE, CONTAINING
ABOUT 20% OIL, IS AN EXCELLENT FEED FOR CATTLE AND POULTRY. THE PRESSCAKE IS SOMETIMES MADE INTO
CONFECTIONS OR FERMENTED INTO DAGEH AND SIGDA. CAKE AND MEAL HIGH IN VITAMIN B, CALCIUM, AND
PHOSPHORUS. IN SUDAN, MINERAL-RICH FILTERED ASHES FROM BURNT STALKS ARE ADDED TO STEWS. SESAMOL
HAS BEEN USED AS AN ANTIOXIDANT IN LARD AND VEGETABLE OILS (CFR). THOUGH SESAME IS GRAS, SOME
PEOPLE MAY BE ANAPHYLACTICALLY ALLERGIC TO SESAME (CFR, FAC, RIN, TAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (SESAME) — SESAME SEED REQUIRE NO REST PERIOD BEFORE GERMINATION. ONLY CERTIFIED
PURE SEEDS SHOULD BE USED, AND THEN THEY SHOULD BE TREATED AGAINST ROT (ACCORDING TO INORGANIC
AGRICULTURISTS) WITH 0.05 KG “ORTHOCIDE 75” PER 80 KG SEED BEFORE PLANTING. THERE ARE CA. 360 SEED/G
(10,200/OZ). SESAME IN THE HOME GARDEN SEEM TO DO BEST IN CIRCUMNEUTRAL, WELL-DRAINED GARDEN
LOAMS, MOIST BUT NOT CONSTANTLY WET (TAD). BOWN (2001) RECOMMENDS SOWING IN SPRING AT 18–24ΟC
(65–75ΟF). MINIMUM TEMPS 15ΟC (59ΟF). TIME FOR SOWING SEED VARIES WITH LOCALITY: MEXICO,
MARCH–AUGUST; VENEZUELA, AUGUST–NOVEMBER; ARIZONA AND TEXAS, WHEN ALL FROST IS PAST; INDIA,
MAY–JULY; AND AFRICA, AT BEGINNING OF RAINS. PLANT WHEN SOIL TEMPERATURE IS ABOUT 24ΟC, IN MOIST,
WEED-FREE, CAREFULLY WORKED SEEDBED. SESAME HAS POOR ABILITY TO COMPETE WITH WEEDS. PLANTS ARE
KILLED BY FROST (TAD). RATE TO SOW SEED IN THE U.S. IS 1–3 KG/HA; IN KENYA, 8–10 KG/HA. SEED MAY
BE SOWN BROADCAST OR IN ROWS 50–75 CM APART. WHEN PLANTED WITH REGULAR ROW CROP PLANTING
EQUIPMENT, ROWS SHOULD BE 45–75 CM APART, SEEDS 2.5–5 CM DEEP, AND 75 CM APART IN THE ROWS.
GERMINATION REQUIRES 6–10 DAYS. GROWTH IS SLOW, SO ADEQUATE SHALLOW CULTIVATION IN EARLY STAGES
IS NECESSARY FOR WEED CONTROL. ERECT BRANCHED TYPES REQUIRE WIDER ROW SPACING THAN DWARF, SINGLESTEM TYPES. SESAME RESPONDS WELL TO IRRIGATION BUT TOLERATES DROUGHT WELL; ONE OR TWO WATERINGS
MAY BE DESIRABLE DURING THE GROWING SEASON. IRRIGATION RAISES YIELD IN ARID AND DESERT AREAS; HOWEVER,
DRY PERIODS AT GERMINATION AND FRUIT FORMATION MAY BE INJURIOUS. WATER CONTAINING HIGH SALT
CONCENTRATION IS UNDESIRABLE AND MAY KILL PLANTS. SEED YIELD IS LOW ON POOR SOILS, THEREFORE APPLICATION OF 5:10:5 NPK FERTILIZER AT PLANTING TIME, AT RATE OF 1.5–2 KG/HA, IS ADVISED. IN ADDITION,
36–50 KG/HA OF NITROGEN SHOULD BE APPLIED TO CROP WHEN FIRST FLOWERS APPEAR. EXCESS NITROGEN MUST
BE AVOIDED, AS IT PROMOTES RANK GROWTH, DELAYS MATURITY, AND CAUSES PLANTS TO BECOME TOPHEAVY
AND TO FALL. HARVESTING OCCURS 90–150 DAYS AFTER PLANTING. NON-SHATTERING SESAME PODS DON’T “OPEN
SESAME” AND ARE, OF COURSE, MUCH BETTER, ESPECIALLY IN MECHANIZED AGRICULTURE. YIELDS OF CA.
1000–2300 LB/ACRE (1200–2600 KG/HA) ARE NORMAL (CFR, TAD).
CHEMISTRY (SESAME) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN SESAME. FOR A
COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ARGININE — SEE ALSO ALLIUM SATIVUM.
SESAMIN — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTILEUKEMIC IC50 = 2.90 ΜG/ML; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = 58 ΜM; CYTOSTATIC
ID50 = 10–100 ΜG/ML; DESATURASE-INHIBITOR; HEPATOPROTECTIVE 100 MG/KG; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC;
IMMUNOSUPPRESSANT IC50 = 0.33 ΜG/ML (CF PREDNISOLONE 0.06 ΜG/ML); INSECTICIDE-SYNERGIST; JUVABIONAL; PISCICIDE; TOCOPHEROL-SYNERGIST.
SESAMINOL — ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT (= TOCOPHEROL).
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SESAMOL — ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = <58 ΜM (> TOCOPHEROL), IC70 = 30 PPM; CARCINOGENIC; TUMORIGENIC;
LD50 = 678 ΜG/KG IVN DOG.
SESAMOLIN — ANTIOXIDANT; INSECTICIDE-SYNERGIST.
SESAMOLINOL — ANTIOXIDANT (>TOCOPHEROL).
TOCOPHEROL — ADI = 2 MG/KG; ANALGESIC 100 IU 3 × DAY; ANTIAGING; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIALZHEIMERAN 2000 IU; ANTIANGINAL 1067 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICANCER;
ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTICATARACTIC; ANTICHOREA; ANTICORONARY 100–200 IU/DAY; ANTIDECUBITIC; ANTIDERMATITIC; ANTIDIABETIC 600–1200 MG/DAY; ANTIDYSMENORRHEIC; ANTIEPITHELEOMIC; ANTIFIBROSITIC;
ANTIGLYCOSATION; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIISCHAEMIC; ANTILEUKEMIC 100–250 ΜM;
ANTILEUKOTRIENIC; ANTILITHIC 600 MG/DAY; ANTILUPUS; ANTIMASTALGIC; ANTIMD; ANTIMS; ANTIMYOCLONIC; ANTINEURITIC; ANTINITROSAMINIC; ANTIOPHTHALMIC; ANTIOSTEOARTHRITIC; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 =
30 ΜG/ML, IC95 = 650 ΜM; ANTIPARKINSONIAN; ANTIPMS 300 IU 2 × DAY; ANTIPROLIFERANT IC50 =
150 ΜG/ML; ANTIRADICULAR; ANTIRETINOPATHIC; ANTISENILITY; ANTISICKLING; ANTISPASMODIC 300
MG/MAN/DAY; ANTISTERILITY; ANTISTROKE; ANTISUNBURN; ANTI-SYNDROME-X; ANTITHALASSEMIC; ANTITHROMBIC 600 IU/DAY; ANTI-THROMBOXANE-B2; ANTITOXEMIC; ANTITUMOR 7 ΜM CKN; ANTITUMOR
(BREAST) IC50 = 125 ΜG/ML, 100–250 ΜM; ANTITUMOR (COLORECTAL) 500–10,000 ΜM; ANTITUMOR
(PROSTATE) 100–250 ΜM; ANTIULCEROGENIC 67 MG/MAN/3 X/DAY/ORL; APOPTOTIC 100–250 ΜM; CEREBROPROTECTIVE; CIRCULOSTIMULANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE; 5-HETE-INHIBITOR; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC
100–450 IU/MAN/DAY; HYPOGLYCEMIC 600 IU/MAN/DAY; IMMUNOSTIMULANT 60–800 IU; INSULINSPARING 1000 IU; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; ODC-INHIBITOR 400 MG/KG; P21-INDUCER 500–10,000
ΜM; PHOSPHOLIPASE-A2-INHIBITOR; PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR 10–50 ΜM, IC50 = 450 ΜM; VASODILATOR; RDA = 2–10 MG/DAY; PTD = 800 MG/DAY.
SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM (L.) MERR. AND L. M. PERRY (MYRTACEAE)
CLAVOS, CLOVE, CLOVETREE
SYNONYMS — CARYOPHYLLUS AROMATICUS L., EUGENIA AROMATICA (L.) BAILL., E. CARYOPHYLLATA THUNB.,
E. CARYOPHYLLUS (SPRENG.) BULLOCK & HARRISON.
MEDICINAL USES (CLOVE) — REPORTED TO BE ANALGESIC, ANESTHETIC, ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIDOTAL, ANTIOXIDANT, ANTIPERSPIRANT, ANTISEPTIC, CARMINATIVE, DEODORANT, DIGESTIVE, RUBEFACIENT, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC,
TONIC, AND VERMIFUGE. SOLD IN ORIENTAL BAZAARS AS A CARMINATIVE AND STIMULANT AND TO RELIEVE THE
IRRITATION OF SORE THROAT. HAS BEEN USED AS AN EXPECTORANT IN BRONCHITIS AND PHTHISIS. AS AN AROMATIC,
POWDERED CLOVES OR AN INFUSION THEREOF HAVE BEEN GIVEN FOR EMESIS, GAS, AND DYSPEPSIA. IN CHINA,
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CRUSHED FLOWER BUDS HAVE BEEN USED FOR NASAL POLYPS, IN MALAYA FOR CALLOUS ULCERS, AND IN CALIFORNIA
FOR WARTS. WHEN WARTS WERE RUBBED THREE TIMES A DAY WITH SESAME FLOWERS COLLECTED WITH THE DAWN
DEW STILL ON THEM, THE TREATMENT WAS DESCRIBED AS 97.2% EFFECTIVE IN A STUDY OF MORE THAN 200
CASES (JAC7:405). THE USDA, OF ALL PLACES, REPORTED THAT THE EQUIVALENT 500 MG CLOVE/DAY IN
HUMANS COULD INCREASE INSULIN EFFICIENCY, AT LEAST IN MODELS OF HUMAN NIDDM. CLOVE OIL IS LOCALLY
IRRITANT AND STIMULATES PERISTALSIS. A POWERFUL ANTISEPTIC, PERHAPS DANGEROUSLY SO, IT HAS BEEN APPLIED
AS A LOCAL ANESTHETIC FOR TOOTHACHE. MIXED WITH CATNIP, GROUND CLOVES AND SASSAFRAS ARE APPLIED AS
A POULTICE TO ACHING TEETH. EUGENOL IS MIXED WITH ZINC OXIDE AND USED AS THE TEMPORARY FILLING TO
DISINFECT ROOT CANALS FROM WHICH THE PULP HAS BEEN REMOVED PRIOR TO PERMANENT RESTORATION.
CLOVE AND SOME OF ITS ACTIVE PRINCIPLES ARE CHOLAGOGUE, AND EUGENOL AND ACETYL EUGENOL POSSESS
ANTIAGGREGANT ACTIVITY (DAD). SRIVASTAVA AND MALHOTRA (1990) REPORT EUGENOL’S EFFECT ON PLATELET
AGGREGATION AND ARACHIDONIC ACID METABOLISM TO BE ANTIAGGREGATORY. ULTRACONSERVATIVELY, RINZLER
(1990) LISTS NO MEDICINAL BENEFITS FOR CLOVES AND SEVERAL NITPICKING NEGATIVES, “EUGENOL IS CLOSELY
RELATED TO SAFROLE, A KNOWN CARCINOGEN THAT CAUSES LIVER CANCER IN LABORATORY MODELS…. BECAUSE
EUGENOL CAN BE IRRITATING TO THE INTESTINAL TRACT, CLOVES ARE USUALLY EXCLUDED FROM A BLAND DIET.
CONTACT WITH CLOVES MAY CAUSE CONTACT DERMATITIS (ITCHING, BURNING, STINGING, REDDENED OR BLISTERED
SKIN)” (RIN). CLOVE BUD OIL IS REPORTED TO HAVE AN ORAL LD50 OF 2650 MG/KG BODY WEIGHT IN RATS
(EQUALING THAT OF THE MAJOR INGREDIENT, EUGENOL, WHICH SENSITIZES SOME PEOPLE, CAUSING CONTACT
DERMATITIS). UNCONSERVATIVELY, I REFER YOU TO THE USDA DATABASE TO FIND DOZENS OF POTENTIAL POSITIVE
ACTIVITIES OF EUGENOL. SINCE YOUR BODY CO-EVOLVED WITH EUGENOL, I EXPECT THAT YOUR BODY HAS
HOMEOSTATIC BALANCES TO DEAL WITH MODEST OVERDOSES (OR UNDERDOSES) OF EUGENOL, WHICH OCCURS IN
HUNDREDS OF CULINARY PLANTS.
FRENCH ENOLOGISTS, TEISSEDRE AND WATERHOUSE (2000), STUDIED ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF EOS OF
SPICES AND CULINARY HERBS. THEY NOTE THAT EOS ARE IMPORTANT AS ANTIBACTERIALS AND ANTIFUNGALS, AS
FLAVORANTS AND PRESERVATIVES WHEN ADDED TO FOODS, AND AS COSMETICS, FOR THEIR AROMATIC AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES. IN THEIR SURVEY OF 23 EOS, STAR ANISE WAS MOST POTENT (IC83 = 2 ΜM) AND SPANISH
RED THYME (THYMUS ZYGIS) LEAST POTENT. CLOVE EO WAS RELATIVELY IMPOTENT (IC22 = 2 ΜM, IC38 =
5 ΜM) (JAF4:3801).
FOR INHIBITING RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES, HOT WATER EXTRACTS OF CLOVE WERE 10 TIMES MORE POTENT
AT A MIC OF 2 ΜG/ML THAN PEPPERMINT OR OREGANO (MIC = 20 ΜG/ML), WHICH IN TURN WERE 10 TIMES
MORE POTENT THAN HOT WATER EXTRACTS OF BAY, EUCALYPT, LEMON BALM, OR NUTMEG (MIC = 200 ΜG/ML)
(KATO, 1990). AND CLOVE PROVED ANTISEPTIC TO BACILLUS SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES
CEREVISIAE, CONFIRMING TRADITIONAL USES OF SPICES AS FOOD PRESERVATIVES, DISINFECTANTS, AND ANTISEPTICS
(DE ET AL., 1999). TAKECHI AND TANAKA (1981) REPORT THE ANTIVIRAL SUBSTANCE, EUGENIN, FROM THE BUDS.
AND OF EIGHT OILS STUDIED BY ZHU ET AL. (2001), CLOVE WAS MOST TOXIC TO SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES, KILLING
100% OF THE TERMITES IN 2 DAYS AT 50 ΜG/C2. ANTITERMITE ACTIVITY AND VOLATILITY OF THE OILS WERE
INVERSELY ASSOCIATED. LISTED IN DECREASING ORDER OF VOLATILITY, THE MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF THE EIGHT OILS
WERE EUCALYPTOL, CITRONELLAL, CITRAL, CITRONELLOL, CINNAMALDEHYDE, EUGENOL, THUJOPSENE, AND BOTH
ALPHA- AND BETA-VETIVONE. LONG LASTING VETIVER OIL WAS THE PROMISING TERMITICIDE (ZHU ET AL., 2001).
INDICATIONS (CLOVE) — ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); ANOREXIA (F; PH2); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; FNF);
ASPERGILLUS (1; HH2); ATHLETE’S FOOT (15% TINCTURE IN 70% ALCOHOL) (2; CAN; FNF); BACILLUS (1;
X10548758); BACTERIA (1; FNF; TRA); BITE (F; BOW); BRONCHOSIS (2; FNF; PHR); BUGBITE (1;
APA); BUNION (1; TGP); CALLUS (F; CRC); CANCER (1; COX; FNF); CANDIDA (1; FNF; HH2); CARIES
(F; CRC); CHILDBIRTH (F; CRC); CHILL (F; BOW); CHOLERA (F; CRC); COLD (2; PHR; PH2); COLIC (1;
CAN; PH2); COUGH (2; PHR); CRAMP (1; FNF); CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (1; JAC7:405); DERMATOSIS (1;
APA); DIARRHEA (1; APA; CRC; HH2); DYSPEPSIA (F; CRC; HH2); ENTEROSIS (F; CRC); ESCHERICHIA
(1; HH2); FEVER (2; PHR); FUNGUS (1; CRC; FNF; HH2; TRA); GAS (1; CRC; HH2; PH2); GASTROSIS
(F; CRC; PH2); GINGIVOSIS (1; APA; FNF); HALITOSIS (1; LMP; PH2; TGP); HEADACHE (1; HH2;
PH2); HEART (F; CRC); HERNIA (F; CRC); HERPES (1; TRA; JAC7:405); HICCUP (F; CRC); IMPOTENCE
(F; BOW); INFECTION (2; APA; FNF; PHR; TRA); INFERTILITY (F; CRC); INFLAMMATION (2; COX; FNF;
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
KOM); MACULOSIS (1; TGP); MUCOSOSIS (1; APA); MYCOSIS (1; FNF; TRA); MYOSIS (F; HH2);
NAUSEA (F; CRC); NEPHROSIS (1; BOW); OPHTHALMIA (F; PH2); PAIN (2; APA; CAN; FNF; PIP);
PARASITE (F; BOW); PHARYNGOSIS (2; APA; KOM; PH2; PIP); PHTHISIS (F; CRC); POLYP (F; CRC);
RETINOSIS (1; TGP); RHINOSIS (F; CRC); SORE (F; CRC); SORE THROAT (F; PIP); SPASM (F; CRC);
STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; HH2); STOMATOSIS (2; APA; FNF; KOM; PH2; PIP); TEETHING (1; WAM);
TOOTHACHE (2; APA; CAN; FNF; HH2; PH2; TRA); TRICHOMONAS (1; HH2); ULCER (F; PH2); UTEROSIS
(F; CRC); VAGINOSIS (1; APA; HH2); VIRUS (1; CRC; FNF; JAC7:405); VOMITING (F; BOW); WART
(F; CRC); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WORM (F; CRC); WOUND (1; APA; CRC); YEAST (1; APA; HH2;
TRA; X10548758).
CLOVE FOR BRONCHOSIS:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 3,4-DIHYDROXYBENZOIC-ACID; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE;
ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRICETIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; PROCYANIDIN; QUERCETIN; RHAMNETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: KAEMPFEROL; MASLINIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFERIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MASLINIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOEUGENOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL;
METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PEDUNCULAGIN; QUERCETIN; RHAMNETIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: EUGENOL
• ANTISEPTIC: PROCYANIDIN; PRODELPHINIDIN
• ANTISPASMODIC: CARYOPHYLLENE; DAUCOSTEROL; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• ANTITUSSIVE: TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENIIN; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MASLINIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PROCYANIDIN; QUERCETIN; RUGOSIN-D; TELLIMAGRANDIN-I
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDICIDE: CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDISTAT: ISOEUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• EXPECTORANT: ASTRAGALIN
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ASTRAGALIN
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: OLEANOLIC-ACID
CLOVE FOR TOOTHACHE:
• ANALGESIC: EUGENOL; QUERCETIN
• ANESTHETIC: BENZYL-ALCOHOL; EUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 3,4-DIHYDROXYBENZOIC-ACID; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE;
ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRICETIN;
OLEANOLIC-ACID; PROCYANIDIN; QUERCETIN; RHAMNETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTICARIOGENIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; CARYOPHYLLENE; DELTA-CADINENE; ELLAGIC-ACID; OLEANOLICACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIDERMATITIC: HYPEROSIDE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIGINGIVITIC: ELLAGIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; KAEMPFERIDE; KAEMPFEROL; MASLINIC-ACID; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; HYPEROSIDE; ISOEUGENOL; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL;
METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; PEDUNCULAGIN; QUERCETIN; RHAMNETIN
• ANTIPLAQUE: ELLAGIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CARVONE; ELLAGIC-ACID; EUGENOL; FURFURAL;
KAEMPFEROL; METHYL-BENZOATE; METHYL-EUGENOL; MYRICETIN; OLEANOLIC-ACID; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ASTRINGENT: ELLAGIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; QUERCETIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDICIDE: CARYOPHYLLENE; EUGENOL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDISTAT: ISOEUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; OLEANOLIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• FUNGICIDE: CARYOPHYLLENE; CARYOPHYLLENE-OXIDE; EUGENOL; FURFURAL; METHYL-EUGENOL; QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL
• FUNGISTAT: ISOEUGENOL; METHYL-EUGENOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ASTRAGALIN
• VULNERARY: TERPINEN-4-OL
OTHER USES (CLOVE) — CLOVES OF COMMERCE ARE THE DRIED, UNEXPANDED FLOWER-BUDS, WITH A LOWER
NAIL-SHAPED PORTION CONSISTING OF THE CALYX-TUBE ENCLOSING THE UPPER HALF OF THE OVARY, THE FOUR
CALYX-TEETH SURROUNDING THE UNOPENED GLOBULAR PETALS AND STAMENS. IT TAKES SOME 5000–7000 DRIED
FLOWER BUDS TO MAKE A POUND (RIN). CLOVES ARE USED AS A CONDIMENT OR SPICE, IN CORDIALS, CURRIES,
HAMS, MINCEMEAT, SAUSAGES, SOUPS, SAUCES, TOBACCOS, MASTICATORIES, CURRIES, PICKLES, PRESERVES,
DESSERTS, CAKES, AND PUDDINGS. GROUND CLOVES ENTER MANY SPICE MIXTURES, CURRY POWDERS, PUMPKIN-PIE SPICE, AND SAUSAGE SEASONINGS. IN INDIA, CLOVES MAY BE CHEWED AFTER MEALS. IN INDONESIA,
CLOVES ARE USED TO MAKE SPECIAL CIGARETTES (KRETEKS) THAT CRACKLE WHEN BURNING. CLOVES HAVE BEEN
USED IN BOTH ALCOHOLIC AND NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, E.G., BENEDICTINE AND COLA. SOME SWEET VERMOUTHS CONTAIN CLOVES. WHOLE OR GROUND CLOVES ARE USED IN SACHETS, POMANDERS, AND POTPOURRIS.
RINZLER (1990) TELLS US HOW TO MAKE A SCENTED POMANDER BALL TO AROMATIZE OUR CLOSETS: STICK CLOVE
NAILS (CLAVOS) INTO A FIRM ORANGE, ALL AROUND AND TIGHTLY PACKED. ROLL THE CLOVE-STUDDED ORANGE IN
CINNAMON POWDER, THEN WRAP IN TISSUE PAPER AND PLACE IT ON A SHELF UNTIL THE ORANGE DRIES AND
SHRINKS. WHEN IT IS COMPLETELY DRY, UNWRAP IT, SHAKE OFF ANY LOOSE POWDER AND HANG THE ORANGE
POMANDER IN THE CLOSET. CLOVE OIL, CLOVE-STEM OIL, AND CLOVE-BUD OIL, OBTAINED BY STEAM DISTILLATION,
ARE USED IN BODY LOTIONS, INSECT REPELLENTS, MOUTHWASHES, PERFUMES, SOAPS, TOOTHPASTES, AND AS AN
ANTISEPTIC. IT IS BACTERICIDAL. THEY CONTAIN EUGENOL, WHICH IS IMPORTANT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
SYNTHETIC VANILLA. OIL ALSO USED AS A CLEARING AGENT IN BIOMICROSCOPY (DAD). FRESH FRUITS ARE EATEN,
AS ARE FRUITS OF MANY OTHER MEMBERS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY. DRIED FLOWERS ARE ALSO CONSUMED (DAD,
FAC, RIN).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (CLOVE) — BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS FERTILE, SUNNY, WELL-DRAINED SOILS, ZONE 10, MINIMUM
TEMP 15–18°C (59–64°F). CLOVES ARE PROPAGATED BY SEEDS WHICH GERMINATE IN 12–14 DAYS, WITH
UP TO 90% GERMINATION, BUT SOME MAY TAKE AS LONG AS 4–5 WEEKS. AFTER THAT, GERMINATION QUICKLY
DIMINISHES. WHEN PLANTING SEEDS, PULP OF THE MATURE FRUIT SHOULD BE WASHED OFF AND THEN PLANTED
WITH RADICLE DOWNWARD AND UPPER HALF EXPOSED ABOVE THE SOIL. SEEDS SHOULD BE PLANTED CA. 20 CM
APART EACH WAY IN A SHADED AREA. BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS SEED SOWING AT 27°C (81°F). GREEN CUTTINGS
IN EARLY SUMMER, AND NEARLY RIPE CUTTINGS IN SUMMER, ARE ALSO USEFUL. WATERING AND SHADE SHOULD
BE REDUCED WHEN SEEDLINGS ARE ABOUT ONE YEAR OLD TO HARDEN THEM. PLANTS SHOULD BE OUTPLANTED IN
THE FIELD WHEN 15–24 MONTHS OLD, SPACED CA. 7 × 7 M. INTERPLANTING WITH BANANA OR CASSAVA PROVIDES
SHADE AND SOME RETURN IN THE YEARS BEFORE THE CLOVES BEAR. SOMETIMES, SEEDS ARE SOWN IN NURSERIES
AND SEEDLINGS TRANSPLANTED TO A LOCATION IN THE SHADE OF OLDER CLOVE TREES WHEN OLD TREES ARE
APPARENTLY ABOUT TO DIE (DAD). FROM PLANTING UNTIL BEARING TAKES 4–7 YEARS, WITH FULL BEARING AGE
AT CA. 20 YEARS. TREE MAY THEN BEAR FOR ABOUT 100 YEARS. WHEN BUDS TURN REDDISH BROWN, THEY ARE
READY FOR HARVESTING. THEY ARE PICKED CAREFULLY BY HAND, AS BRANCHES ARE VERY BRITTLE. IF LEFT UNPICKED,
S
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
A FRUIT, CALLED “MOTHER OF CLOVES,” DEVELOPS. FLOWER BUDS ARE DRIED FOUR TO FIVE DAYS ON CEMENT
FLOORS OR DRYING MATS. THERE MAY BE TWO HARVESTS PER YEAR, JULY–OCTOBER AND DECEMBER–JANUARY.
AN AVERAGE TREE YIELDS MORE THAN 3 KG DRIED CLOVES PER YEAR, BUT YIELDS OF 18 KG ARE NOT UNCOMMON.
CLOVE STEMS, STALKS, LEAVES, FRUIT, AND BUDS ARE USED FOR DISTILLING OIL OF CLOVES. IT TAKES 11,000–15,000
CLOVES TO MAKE 1 KG SPICE. CLOVES YIELD FROM 14–21% OF VOLATILE OIL, HIGH IN EUGENOL.
CHEMISTRY (CLOVE) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CLOVE. FOR A COMPLETE
LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE
AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
EUGENIIN — ANTIHERPETIC; ANTILIPOLYTIC; ANTIVIRAL; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC100 = 0.5 ΜM.
EUGENOL — SEE ALSO PIMENTA DIOICA.
EUGENYL-ACETATE — ANTIAGGREGANT ED = 15 ΜM; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN ED50 = 3
ΜM; ANTISPASMODIC; IRRITANT; TRYPSIN-ENHANCER; LD50 = 1670 MG/KG ORL RAT.
SYRINGIC-ACID — ANTIOXIDANT IC39 = 30 PPM; UBIQUICT.
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
T
TAMARINDUS INDICA L. (CAESALPINIACEAE)
INDIAN TAMARIND, KILYTREE, TAMARIND, TAMARINDO
MEDICINAL USES (TAMARIND) — FOR YEARS, THE PULP OF THE TAMARIND HAS BEEN USED, WITH GOOD
REASON, AS AN ANTISCORBUTIC, LAXATIVE, AND CARMINATIVE. IT IS ALSO USED AS A DIGESTIVE AND TO TREAT BILE
DISORDERS. USED IN A GARGLE FOR SORE THROAT, AS A LINIMENT FOR RHEUMATISM WHEN MIXED WITH SALT,
APPLIED ON INFLAMMATIONS, ADMINISTERED TO ALLEVIATE SUNSTROKE AND ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION, TO AID THE
RESTORATION OF SENSATION IN CASES OF PARALYSIS, AND AS PART OF A VERMIFUGE OINTMENT. IN ERITREA, THE
PULP IS SOLD FOR DYSENTERY AND MALARIA; IN INDONESIA FOR HAIR AILMENTS; IN MADAGASCAR FOR WORMS
AND STOMACH DISORDER; IN TANGANYIKA FOR SNAKEBITE; IN SRI LANKA FOR JAUNDICE, EYE DISEASES, AND
ULCERS; IN CAMBODIA FOR CONJUNCTIVITIS; AND IN BRAZIL AS A DIAPHORETIC, EMOLLIENT, LAXATIVE, AND FOR
HEMORRHOIDS. THE LEAVES AND FLOWERS ARE USED AS POULTICES FOR SWOLLEN JOINTS, SPRAINS AND BOILS,
AND LOTIONS OR EXTRACTS OF LEAVES AND FLOWERS FOR CONJUNCTIVITIS, DYSENTERY, JAUNDICE, ERYSIPELAS, AND
HEMORRHOIDS, AND AS ANTISEPTIC AND VERMIFUGE. BAHAMIANS TAKE THE LEAF TEA FOR CHILLS AND FEVERS. IN
CURACAO THEY TAKE THE LEAF DECOCTION FOR COLDS, COUGHS, DIABETES, AND SORE THROATS. JAMAICANS TAKE
IT FOR FEVER, MEASLES, AND PAIN. THE BARK IS AN EFFECTIVE ASTRINGENT, TONIC, AND ANTIPYRETIC, USED FOR
ASTHMA, CATERPILLAR RASHES, COLIC, EYE INFLAMMATIONS, GINGIVITIS, INDIGESTION, AND OPEN SORES. THE
ASTRINGENT SEED IS USED AS A DYSENTERY AND CHRONIC DIARRHEA REMEDY, AND AS A PASTE FOR DRAWING
BOILS. ROOT INFUSION USED FOR CHEST COMPLAINTS AND IS AN INGREDIENT IN LEPROSY PRESCRIPTIONS. CUBANS
TAKE THE ROOT DECOCTION FOR JAUNDICE AND HEMORRHAGE. MANY LATINOS USE THE PULP AS A GENTLE LAXATIVE,
WHILE CUBANS USE THE POWDER OF TOASTED SEED TO ARREST DIARRHEA.
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN THEIR ADMIRABLE EFFORT TO CLEAR THE SAFER AND MORE EFFICACIOUS OF TROPICAL AMERICAN FOLK
REMEDIES, FOR SO MANY PEOPLE WHO CAN’T AFFORD MODERN PRESCRIPTION DRUGS, TRAMIL NOTES THAT
ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS ARE BACTERICIDAL, AND THAT THE DIURETIC PULP INHIBITS THE GRAM(–) BACTERIA RESPONSIBLE
FOR URINARY INFECTIONS. THIS SUGGESTS A FOOD FARMACY APPROACH TO CYSTITIS COMBINING THE URINARY
ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES OF CRANBERRY AND TAMARIND IN A PLEASANT TART BEVERAGE. TRAMIL ALSO REPORTS
ANTILIPOPEROXIDATIVE AND HEPATOTROPIC PROPERTIES, FOR THE AQUEOUS LEAF EXTRACT, APPROVED BY TRAMIL
FOR USE IN JAUNDICE. THEY NOTE ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTISPASMODIC, AND VASODILATOR PROPERTIES OF THE
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT (DAD, LEG, TRA, WOI).
KHAN AND BALICK (2001) NOTE HUMAN STUDIES ON TAMARIND FOR PAIN AND WORMS. TAMARIND
INCREASED BIOAVAILABILITY OF OTHER DRUGS AND DECREASED PAIN (JAC7:405). ALSO, IT CAN KILL BACILLUS
SUBTILIS, ESCHERICHIA COLI, AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE (DE ET AL., 1999). SAMBAIAH AND SRINIVASAN
(1989) NOTE THAT TAMARIND STIMULATES N-DEMETHYLASE ACTIVITY. IT ALSO STIMULATED LIVER MICROSOMAL
CYTOCHROME P450 DEPENDENT ARYL HYDROXYLASE.
INDICATIONS (TAMARIND) — ABSCESS (F; WBB); ADENOSIS (F; JLH); ALCOHOLISM (F; PH2); AMENORRHEA
(F; KAB; WBB); ANOREXIA (F; KAP; MAD); APOPLEXY (F; DEP); ARTHROSIS (F; DAD); ASTHMA (F; DAD;
KAB; WBB); BACILLUS (1; X10548758); BACTERIA (1; AAB; FNF; TRA); BILIOUSNESS (F; DEP; KAB;
SUW; WOI); BITE (F; AAB); BLEEDING (F; JFM; KAP; MAD; RYM); BO (F; KAB); BOIL (F; AAB;
DAD; DEP; IHB; WOI); CANCER (F; JLH; KAB); CANCER, ABDOMEN (F; JLH); CANCER, COLON (F; JLH);
CANCER, GLAND (F; JLH); CANCER, SPLEEN (F; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (F; JLH); CANCER, VAGINA (F; JLH);
CANDIDA (1; APA; FNF); CHILL (F; DAD; JFM); CHOLECYSTOSIS (1; HH2; PHR; PH2); CHOLERA (1; AAB);
COLD (F; JFM); COLIC (F; AAB); CONJUNCTIVOSIS (F; DAD; IHB; JFM; KAB); CONSTIPATION (1; APA;
PH2); COUGH (F; JFM; SKJ); CRAMP (1; FNF); DERMATOSIS (F; AAB; IHB); DIABETES (F; JFM); DIARRHEA
(1; APA; FNF); DIZZINESS (F; HH2); DYSENTERY (F; DAD; DEP; JFM; WBB); DYSMENORRHEA (F; MAD);
DYSPEPSIA (F; KAB; SKJ); DYSURIA (F; GMH; KAB); EARACHE (F; KAB); ECZEMA (F; MAD); EDEMA
(F; WOI); ENTEROSIS (F; WBB); ERYSIPELAS (F; DAD); ESCHERICHIA (1; APA); FEVER (1; APA; FNF; HH2;
JFM; PHR; PH2; SUW); FUNGUS (1; APA; FNF); FURUNCLE (F; WBB); GAS (F; SKJ); GASTROSIS (F;
KAB); GINGIVOSIS (F; DAD; WBB); GONORRHEA (F; WBB); HANGOVER (F; DEP; PH2, TGP); HEADACHE
(F; MAD); HEARTBURN (F; MAD); HEMORRHOID (F; DAD; DEP; PH2; WBB); HEPATOSIS (F; HH2; KAB;
PHR; PH2); HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM (F; BOW); INFECTION (1; AAB; DAD; FNF); INFLAMMATION (1;
DAD; DEP; FNF); INTOXICATION (F; DAD; DEP; KAB; PH2); ITCH (F; MAD); JAUNDICE (1; DAD; JFM;
MAD; TRA; WBB); LEPROSY (F; DAD; WBB); LEUKORRHEA (F; MAD); MALARIA (F; DAD; WBB);
MEASLES (F; JFM); MORNING SICKNESS (F; AAB; APA); MUCOSOSIS (F; IHB); MYCOSIS (1; AAB; FNF);
MYOSIS (F; SKJ); NAUSEA (1; APA); OPHTHALMIA (F; DAD); PAIN (1; DEP; FNF; JFM); PARALYSIS (F;
DAD; KAB); PHARYNGOSIS (F; PH2); PULMONOSIS (F; DAD); RASH (F; AAB); RESPIROSIS (F; DAD);
RHEUMATISM (F; DAD; IHB; WBB); RINGWORM (1; APA; KAB); SALMONELLA (1; AAB); SCABIES (F;
KAB); SCHISTOSOMIASIS (1; AAB; APA); SMALLPOX (F; KAB); SNAKEBITE (F; KAB; WBB); SORE (F;
AAB; IHB); SORE THROAT (F; AAB; DEP; JFM); SPLENOSIS (F; JLH); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; AAB; APA);
STING (F; SKJ); STOMACHACHE (F; PH2; SKJ); STOMATOSIS (F; IHB; KAB; PH2); SUNSTROKE (F; DEP;
SKJ); SWELLING (F; HH2; KAB; WOI); SYPHILIS (F; SKJ); ULCER (F; DAD); UTI (F; DAD; TRA);
UVULOSIS (F; KAB); VD (F; WBB); VERTIGO (F; HH2; KAB); VIRUS (1; FNF); VOMITING (F; PH2); WORM
(1; APA; DAD); WOUND (F; AAB; IHB); YEAST (1; APA; FNF; X10548758).
TAMARIND FOR DIARRHEA:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-IONONE;
CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROL; PHENOL; SAFROLE; TAMARINDIENAL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIDIARRHEIC: HORDENINE
• ANTISPASMODIC: CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; PYRIDOXINE
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
PHENOL
• CANDIDICIDE: BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIOL; OCTANOIC-ACID; TAMARINDIENAL
• CANDIDISTAT: LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• CARMINATIVE: CARVACROL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; SAFROLE
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: HORDENINE
• PROTISTICIDE: ACETIC-ACID
• VERMIFUGE: CARVACROL
TAMARIND FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: METHYL-SALICYLATE; MYRCENE; PHENOL; PYRIDOXINE
• ANESTHETIC: CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; PHENOL; SAFROLE
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BETA-IONONE;
CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; NEROL; PHENOL; SAFROLE; TAMARINDIENAL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; METHYL-SALICYLATE; ORIENTIN; VITEXIN
• ANTISEPTIC: ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AROMADENDRENE; BETA-PINENE; CARVACROL; FURFURAL; GERANIOL;
LIMONENE; LINALOOL; METHYL-SALICYLATE; NEROL; OXALIC-ACID; P-CRESOL; PHENOL; SAFROLE; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ALPHA-PINENE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; GERANIAL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL;
PHENOL
• BACTERISTAT: MALIC-ACID
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE
• FUNGICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; BETA-IONONE; CARVACROL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; FURFURAL; GERANIOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; OCTANOIC-ACID; PHENOL; TAMARINDIENAL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• FUNGISTAT: LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE
OTHER USES (TAMARIND) — CULTIVATED MAINLY FOR THE PULP IN THE FRUIT, IT IS USED TO PREPARE BEVERAGES,
TO FLAVOR CONFECTIONS, CURRIES, AND SAUCES (WORCESTERSHIRE AND PICKAPEPPA), AND TO MAKE PRESERVES AND
SYRUPS. “JUGO” OR “FRESCO DE TAMARINDO” IS A FAVORITE BEVERAGE IN MANY LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES AND
IS BOTTLED COMMERCIALLY IN SOME. SOME LATINS CLAIM THAT THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT “SECRET” INGREDIENT
IN SWEET AND SOUR SAUCES AND IN CHUTNEYS. CURACAO NATIVES USE THE PULP TO MAKE A SOUP WITH CINNAMON
AND SUGAR (THIS COULD WELL BE A FOOD FARMACY APPROACH TO ALLEVIATE MILD DIABETES). WEST INDIAN DUTCH
MIX THE PULP WITH ASHES TO MAKE A FOOD WHOSE NAME TRANSLATES TO “CAT FECES.” IN SRI LANKA, THE PULP
IS MADE INTO A BRINE FOR PICKLING FISH. JAVANESE ROLL SALTED PULP INTO BALLS, THEN STEAM AND SUN-DRY THEM.
SOME COOK THE WHOLE UNRIPE FRUITS IN CURRIES. YOUNG, IMMATURE PODS ARE EATEN FRESH MIXED WITH SPICES
OR FISH SAUCE, PICKLED LIKE GREEN MANGO, OR ADDED WHOLE TO SOUPS, STEWS, AND SAUCES, SUCH AS NÄM PRIK
MA-KAHM. IN AFRICA, THE PODS ARE ADDED TO DETOXIFY POISONOUS DIOSCOREA DISHES. ELSEWHERE, IT IS USED
TO DEODORIZE FISH DISHES. IN PLACES, THE FLOWERS, SEEDLINGS, EVEN THE LEAVES ARE EATEN AS VEGETABLES IN
CURRIES. THE BARK IS CHEWED AS A DELICACY, FLOWERS ARE EATEN RAW IN SALADS OR COOKED, AND SEEDLINGS,
WHEN ABOUT A FOOT HIGH, ARE USED AS VEGETABLES (FAC). LEAVES ARE EATEN IN CURRIES, SALADS, AND SOUPS.
LEAVES ARE ALSO EATEN BY CATTLE AND GOATS. IN INDIA AND WEST AFRICA, THE LEAVES ARE USED AS FODDER FOR
SILKWORMS. LEAVES AND FLOWERS ARE USEFUL AS FIXATIVES IN DYEING. THE LEAVES ARE USED TO BLEACH LEAVES
OF THE BURI PALM (CORYPHA ELATA ROXB.), WHICH ARE USED FOR HAT-MAKING. THE FLOWERS ARE CONSIDERED A
GOOD SOURCE OF NECTAR FOR HONEYBEES. SEEDS, ONCE BOILED AND PEELED, ARE USED AS A STARCHY FOODSTUFF.
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
REPORTEDLY 70% KERNEL AND 30% TESTA, TESTAE ARE SEPARATED BY ROASTING OR SOAKING, AND THE KERNELS ARE
BOILED OR FRIED BEFORE EATEN LIKE PEANUTS. SEEDS ARE ROASTED AND EATEN, GROUND TO FLOUR, AND USED AS A
COFFEE SUBSTITUTE. SEED OIL, THOUGH USEFUL AS A VARNISH, IS SAID TO BE PALATABLE AND OF CULINARY QUALITY.
SEEDS ARE USED FOR FOOD IN INDIA AND PROVIDE A SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATE FOR SIZING CLOTH, PAPER, AND JUTE
PRODUCTS, AND A VEGETABLE GUM USED IN THE FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY. AN INFUSION OF THE WHOLE PODS IS
ADDED TO THE DYE WHEN COLORING GOAT HIDES IN WEST AFRICA. PULP ALSO USED AS A FIXATIVE WITH TURMERIC
OR ANNATTO IN DYEING AND HAS SERVED TO COAGULATE RUBBER LATEX. MIXED WITH SEA WATER, THE PULP IS USED
TO CLEAN SILVER, COPPER, AND BRASS. TWIGS USED AS CHEWSTICKS AND THE BARK IS CHEWED AS A MASTICATORY.
THE BARK ALSO USED IN TANNING AND DYEING, AND BURNED TO MAKE AN INK. LOW-QUALITY FIBER FROM BARK OF
YOUNG TREES USED TO MAKE TWINE OR STRING. WOOD OF TAMARIND IS VERY HARD AND DURABLE, USED LOCALLY FOR
TOOL HANDLES, RICE POUNDERS, OIL AND SUGAR MILLS, AND FURNITURE AND TURNERY, AND IS SAID TO PRODUCE THE
FINEST GRADE OF GUNPOWDER CHARCOAL.WOOD ASHES USED IN TANNING AND IN DE-HAIRING GOATSKINS. FREQUENTLY
GROWN AS A DOORYARD, ROADSIDE, OR WINDBREAK TREE (DAD, FAC, LEG, WOI).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (TAMARIND) — CAN BE PROPAGATED BY SEED, SOWN AT 21°C (70°F), IN LIGHT, WELL-DRAINED,
SUNNY SOILS, ZONE 10, MIN. TEMP 15–18°C (59–64°F); OR GREENWOOD CUTTINGS IN SPRING OR SUMMER; OR
BY AIR-LAYERING OR GRAFTING (BOWN, 2001). SEED FOR PLANTING SHOULD BE TAKEN FROM TREES YIELDING HEAVY
CROP OF WELL FORMED ROUNDED PODS. FRESH SEEDS ARE NOT SUITABLE FOR PLANTING. SEEDS GATHERED FROM
APRIL CROP MAY BE PLANTED IN SEPTEMBER. SEEDS ARE SOAKED 4–5 DAYS IN WATER, THEN PLANTED ABOUT 4
CM DEEP IN BASKETS, BAMBOO POTS, OR A NURSERY BED. WHEN THE SEEDLINGS ARE 60–70 CM TALL, IN ABOUT
9 OR 10 MONTHS, THEY ARE TRANSPLANTED DURING THE RAINY SEASON TO GROVES, WHERE THEY ARE SPACED 3–7
M APART EACH WAY. THE RICHER THE SOIL, THE FARTHER APART THEY SHOULD BE PLANTED. OFTEN, THE SEEDLINGS
ARE PLANTED IN PITS PREVIOUSLY PREPARED WITH WELL DECOMPOSED MANURE AND ALLOWED TO “WEATHER.” ONCE
ESTABLISHED, THE PLANTS REQUIRE LITTLE ATTENTION, EXCEPT WATERING DURING PROLONGED DROUGHTS, LOOSENING
OF THE SOIL, AND AN OCCASIONAL WEEDING. TREES WILL GROW LIKE ANY WILD TREE IN 4–5 YEARS. BUDDING ON
YOUNG SEEDLINGS IS ALSO POSSIBLE. UNDER FAVORABLE CONDITIONS, TAMARINDS START BEARING AT CA. 5 YEARS,
BUT FOUR-YEAR-OLDS MAY BEAR IN MALAGASY. SOME INDIAN TREES REACH 14 YEARS OLD BEFORE FRUITING. TREES
BEAR COPIOUSLY UP TO AGE 50 OR SO AND THEN MAY DECLINE, THOUGH THE TREE MAY LIVE TO BE 200 YEARS
OLD. PODS MAY BE LEFT ON THE TREE FOR 6 MONTHS, AS THE MOISTURE CONTENT DWINDLES TO 20% OR LOWER,
BUT ARE GENERALLY GATHERED WHEN RIPE, AND THE HARD POD SHELL IS REMOVED. PODS ARE PICKED OR SHAKEN
FROM THE TREES, BUT IT IS BEST TO CLIP THE FRUIT STALKS CAREFULLY. TO PRESERVE, THE PODS ARE SHELLED, THE
PULP PLACED IN CASKS AND COVERED WITH BOILING SYRUP OR PACKED CAREFULLY IN STONE JARS WITH ALTERNATE
LAYERS OF SUGAR, OR THE PULP LAYERED WITH SUGAR OR SPRINKLED WITH SALT OR MOLDED INTO BALLS OF PULP, TO
BE STORED IN COOL DRY PLACES. MATURE TREES CAN PRODUCE 150–225 KG FRUIT, HALF OF WHICH MAY BE PULP.
BUT AVERAGE YIELDS OF 80–90 KG PREPARED PULP PREVAIL PER MATURE TREE. UP TO 170 KG OF PREPARED PULP
PER TREE HAS BEEN REPORTED IN INDIA AND CEYLON. ONE HUNDRED TREES/HA EACH YIELDING 200 KG FRUIT
YIELDING 100 KG PULP TRANSLATES TO 10 MT PULP/HA POSSIBLE (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (TAMARIND) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN TAMARIND. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
LINOLEIC-ACID — SEE ALSO CERATONIA SILIQUA.
LYSINE — SEE ALSO PRUNUS DULCIS.
MUFA — SEE ALSO PERSEA AMERICANA.
TAMARINDIENAL — ANTIBACTERIAL; BITTER; CANDIDICIDE; FUNGICIDE.
TARTARIC-ACID — ADI = 30 MG/KG; ACIDIFIER; ADDITIVE; ANTIOXIDANT SYNERGIST; IRRITANT; SEQUESTRANT;
LDLO = 5000 ORL DOG; LD50 = 4360 MG/KG ORL RAT.
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THEOBROMA CACAO L. (STERCULIACEAE)
CACAO, CHOCOLATE, COCOA
MEDICINAL USES (CACAO) — REPORTED TO BE ANTISEPTIC, DIURETIC, ECBOLIC, EMMENAGOGUE, AND PARASITICIDE. MEXICAN AMERINDIANS APPLY THE SEED OIL TO WOUNDS. VENEZUELANS USE THE OIL OR “BUTTER”
ON BURNS, CRACKED LIPS, ERUPTIONS, MASTALGIA, SORE GENITALS, INSERTING THEM INTO THE RECTUM OR VAGINA
FOR PROCTOSIS OR VAGINOSIS. KUNA INDIANS USE THE LEAVES ON WOUNDS, THE FLOWERS FOR EYE INFESTATIONS,
AND THE PULP OF THE FRUITS FOR PARTURITIONS. COLOMBIANS USE THE LEAF TEA AS A DIURETIC CARDIOTONIC.
DECOCTIONS OF THE BARK AND/OR SEEDS ARE USED IN AMAZONIA FOR SCALP AND SKIN CONDITIONS. COCOA
BUTTER IS MASSAGED ONTO TO WRINKLES IN THE HOPE OF CORRECTING THEM. AND CREAMS CONTAINING
AMINOPHYLLINE ARE MASSAGED ONTO CELLULITE, POSSIBLY REDUCING THE UNATTRACTIVE COTTAGE-CHEESE RIPPLES
OF CELLULITE IN MIDDLE AGED MATRONS. CHOCOLATE CONTAINS TWO OR MORE XANTHINES RATHER RELATED TO
AMINOPHYLLINE, ALSO USED IN SOME TOPICAL CELLULITE CREAMS. LIKE COFFEE AND TEA, CHOCOLATE IS GETTING
A LOT OF PRESS AS AN ANTIOXIDANT BEVERAGE.
CHOCOLATE, AS WE TAKE IT IN THE U.S., MIGHT BE MORE LIPOGENIC THAN LIPOLYTIC. CHOCOLATE CAN
BOOST SEROTONIN LEVELS AND BOOST ENDORPHIN LEVELS WITH A POWERFUL RESULT; ALL BRAIN CHEMICALS ARE
POSITIONED AT OPTIMAL LEVELS FOR POSITIVE MOODS AND RENEWED ENERGY. CHOCOLATE ALSO CONTAINS
PHENYLETHYLAMINE AND IS A GOOD SOURCE OF MAGNESIUM, IMPORTANT IN SEROTONIN MANUFACTURE AND IN
STABILIZING MOOD. IF THE PHARMACEUTICAL FIRMS CAN PROMOTE THEIR PHARMACEUTICAL SEROTONINERGIC DRUGS
FOR OBESITY, SAYING THAT SEROTONIN SENDS A SATIETY SIGNAL TO THE BODY, THEN I SUPPOSE OUR HERBAL
SEROTONINERGICS COULD HELP AS WELL. ANCIENT MAYANS DRANK CHOCOLATE CONTAINING THERMOGENIC CAFFEINE AND THEOBROMINE, MIXED WITH HOT PEPPERS, CONTAINING THERMOGENIC CAPSAICIN, A POTENTIALLY
SYNERGIC MIX OF THREE THERMOGENICS FROM TWO OF OUR SPICES. RECENTLY, DULLO ET AL. (1999), THOUGH
WORKING WITH GREEN TEA, SHOWED THAT THE EPIGALLOCATECHIN, WHICH ALSO OCCURS IN CHOCOLATE, WAS
POTENTIALLY SYNERGETIC AS A THERMOGEN WITH CAFFEINE AND PERHAPS THE OTHER XANTHINES. THEY MEASURED
THE 24-HOUR ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF 10 HEALTHY MEN RECEIVING 3 DAILY DOSES OF CAFFEINE (50 MG), OR
THE EXTRACT (CONTAINING 50 MG CAFFEINE AND 90 MG EPIGALLOCATECHIN), OR A PLACEBO. COMPARED WITH
PLACEBO, THE EXTRACT (IN THEIR CASE, GREEN TEA, NOT CHOCOLATE) INDUCED SIGNIFICANT INCREASES (~4%) IN
ENERGY EXPENDITURE. THE EXTRACT CONTAINS A HIGH AMOUNT OF CATECHIN POLYPHENOLS, WHICH MAY WORK
WITH OTHER PHYTOCHEMICALS TO SPEED UP FAT OXIDATION AND THERMOGENESIS. I DID NOT TREAT COCA, THE
SOURCE OF COCAINE, IN THIS BOOK ON SPICES, BUT IN A SENSE THE COCA LEAF IS A FLAVORING, BEING USED FOR
A CENTURY TO FLAVOR COCA-COLA. AND THE COCA LEAF (ERYTHROXYLUM), LIKE THE COCOA SEED (THEOBROMA),
CONTAINS SEVERAL ANORECTIC ALKALOIDS THAT MIGHT HELP TO CURB HUNGER, AND THAT MIGHT BE SYNERGISTIC
WITH THE PINCA-PINCA (AN ANDEAN EPHEDRA), USED IN TEAS THERE, AND CONTAINING TWO MORE ANORECTIC
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ALKALOIDS, EPHEDRINE AND PSUEDOEPHEDRINE. BRING IN THE CATHINE AND CATHINONE FROM THE KHAT IN
ETHIOPIA, AND THE SYNEPHRINE FROM ORANGE PEEL, SWEETEN WITH STEVIA, AND YOU HAVE MY HERBAL
ANTIOBESITEA, A THERMOGENIC POT POURRI THAT WOULD SURELY BE DECLARED ILLEGAL, BUT WOULD SURELY BE
THERMOGENIC AND ANORECTIC. AND PROBABLY AS SAFE AS SOME OF THE LEGAL WEIGHT-LOSS PHARMACEUTICAL
COMBINATIONS. COCA-COLA, AS ORIGINALLY FORMULATED, WOULD ALSO BE ILLEGAL. MY DAD USED TO CALL A
COCA-COLA A “DOPE.”
AND MORE AND MORE, SCIENCE SEEMS TO BACK UP COCOA REPUTATION AS AN APHRODISIAC, INDUCING
A FEW ADDICTED CHOCAHOLICS. EVEN AZTEC INDIANS CONSIDERED IT APHRODISIAC. SOMEHOW, CHOCOLATE
MAY BE MORE EFFECTIVE IN WOMEN THAN MEN. THE XANTHINE ALKALOIDS, CAFFEINE, THEOBROMINE, AND
THEOPHYLLINE HAVE CGMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE INHIBITION ACTIVITY, WHICH SOME HINT MIGHT BE VIAGRA-LIKE ACTIVITY. THAT PUTS A DIFFERENT SLANT ON THE “FOOD OF THE GODS.” THERE’S EVEN A MARIJUANALIKE ANTIDEPRESSANT CALLED ANANDAMIDE. TECHNICALLY, IT IS CALLED AN ANESTHETIC. AND IT ALSO HELPS
HEADACHES. IN JAMA (VOL. 276{8}:584E, 1996) WE READ OF TOPICAL TREATMENT OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION WITH A CREAM CONTAINING 3% AMINOPHYLLINE, 0.25% ISOSORBIDE DINITRATE, AND 0.05% CODERGOCRINE MESYLATE. THIRTY-SIX ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION PATIENTS WERE GIVEN EITHER ACTIVE CREAM OR
PLACEBO FOR ALTERNATING WEEKS; 21 REPORTED FULL ERECTION AND SATISFACTORY INTERCOURSE WITH THE
ACTIVE CREAM. THE ACTIVE CREAM WAS MORE EFFECTIVE IN PSYCHOGENIC THAN ORGANIC IMPOTENCE (EIGHT
OF NINE WITH PSYCHOGENIC IMPOTENCE ACHIEVED FULL ERECTION VS. FOUR OF EIGHT WITH NEUROGENIC
IMPOTENCE AND TWO OF SEVEN WITH ARTERIAL INSUFFICIENCY). IN THE LAB, THE CREAM INCREASED PENILE
ARTERIAL FLOW AND INDUCED TUMESCENCE IN 24 PATIENTS. THEIR CONCLUSION MIGHT LEAD TO MORE
OPTIMISM FOR OTHER MORE HERBAL TOPICALS: “TOPICAL TREATMENT WITH A CREAM CONTAINING THREE
DIFFERENT VASODILATORS MIGHT BE CONSIDERED BEFORE INTRACAVERNOUS INJECTIONS OF VASOACTIVE AGENTS,
PARTICULARLY IN PSYCHOGENIC IMPOTENCE.” ONE CAN LOOK AT MY DATABASE AND FIND SEVERAL OTHER
PROMISING VASODILATORS. I’D NOT BE AFRAID TO TRY CELERY’S APIGENIN, CHOCOLATE’S CAFFEINE, THEOBROMINE, THEOPHYLLINE, ONION’S QUERCETIN, POPPIES’ PAPAVERINE, AND/OR GINGER’S ZINGERONE, BUT I’D
BE LEERY OF THE RUBEFACIENT CAPSAICIN.
ACCORDING TO AN ARTICLE IN THE CHICAGO SUN TIMES, PEOPLE WHO SUFFER EXTREME DEPRESSION AS
VICTIMS OF UNREQUITED LOVE HAVE AN IRREGULAR PRODUCTION OF PHENYLETHYLAMINE. SUCH INDIVIDUALS OFTEN
GO ON A CHOCOLATE BINGE DURING PERIODS OF DEPRESSION. CHOCOLATE IS PARTICULARLY HIGH IN PHENYLETHYLAMINE, PERHAPS SERVING AS MEDICATION. THEOPHYLLINE IS A POTENT CNS AND CARDIOVASCULAR STIMULANT
WITH DIURETIC AND BRONCHIAL SMOOTH MUSCLE RELAXANT PROPERTIES. RECENTLY, THIS DRUG WAS PROVEN
EFFECTIVE IN PREVENTING AND TREATING APNEA IN PREMATURE INFANCY.
AND SUTTON (1981) REPORTS THE COLLAPSE AND DEATH OF A THREE-YEAR OLD BITCH THAT HAD EATEN A 250
G PACKAGE OF COCOA. POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION REVEALED CONGESTION OF LUNGS, LIVER, KIDNEY, AND
PANCREAS, AND PETECHIAL AND ECCHYMOTIC HEMORRHAGE OF THE THYMUS, ALL COMPATIBLE WITH ACUTE
CIRCULATORY FAILURE. THE STOMACH CONTAINED HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF THEOBROMINE AND/OR CAFFEINE.
THOUGH USED COSMETICALLY, COCOA BUTTER HAS BEEN REPORTED TO HAVE ALLERGENIC AND COMEDOGENIC
PROPERTIES IN ANIMALS. COCOA EXTRACTS ARE GRAS (§182.20). TYLER (1994) PRODUCES A CHART COMPARING
VARIOUS CAFFEINE SOURCES TO WHICH WE HAVE ADDED OTHER ROUNDED FIGURES:
CUP (6 OZ.) ESPRESSO COFFEE 310 MG
CUP (6 OZ.) BOILED COFFEE 100 MG
CUP (6 OZ.) INSTANT COFFEE 65 MG
CUP (6 OZ.) TEA 10–50 MG
CUP (6 OZ.) COCOA 13 MG
CAN (6 OZ.) COLA 25 MG
CAN (6 OZ.) COCA-COLA 20 MG
CUP (6 OZ.) MATE 25–50 MG
CAN (6 OZ.) PEPSI COLA 10 MG
TABLET CAFFEINE 100–200 MG
TABLET (800 MG) ZOOM (PAULLINIA CUPANA) 60 MG
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
IN HUMANS, CAFFEINE, 1,3,7-TRIMETHYLXANTHINE, IS DEMETHYLATED INTO THREE PRIMARY METABOLITES:
THEOPHYLLINE, THEOBROMINE, AND PARAXANTHINE. SINCE THE EARLY PART OF THE 20TH CENTURY, THEOPHYLLINE
HAS BEEN USED IN THERAPEUTICS FOR BRONCHODILATION, FOR ACUTE VENTRICULAR FAILURE, AND FOR LONG-TERM
CONTROL OF BRONCHIAL ASTHMA. AT 100 MG/KG, THEOPHYLLINE IS FETOTOXIC TO RATS, BUT NO TERATOGENIC
ABNORMALITIES WERE NOTED. IN THERAPEUTICS, THEOBROMINE HAS BEEN USED AS A DIURETIC, AS A CARDIAC
STIMULANT, AND FOR DILATION OF ARTERIES. BUT AT 100 MG, THEOBROMINE IS FETOTOXIC AND TERATOGEN. LEUNG
(1995) REPORTS A FATAL DOSE IN MAN AT 10,000 MG, WITH 1000 MG OR MORE CAPABLE OF INDUCING HEADACHE,
NAUSEA, INSOMNIA, RESTLESSNESS, EXCITEMENT, MILD DELIRIUM, MUSCLE TREMOR, TACHYCARDIA, AND EXTRASYSTOLES. LEUNG ALSO ADDS “CAFFEINE HAS BEEN REPORTED TO HAVE MANY OTHER ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING MUTAGENIC,
TERATOGENIC, AND CARCINOGENIC ACTIVITIES; …TO CAUSE TEMPORARY INCREASE IN INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE, TO HAVE
CALMING EFFECTS ON HYPERKINETIC CHILDREN…TO CAUSE CHRONIC RECURRING HEADACHE” (LEUNG, 1995).
INDICATIONS (CACAO) — ADD (1; DAD); ADENOSIS (F; HH2); ALLERGY (1; FNF); ALOPECIA (F; CRC);
ANGINA (1; BOW); ASTHMA (1; APA; DAV; FNF); BACTERIA (1; FNF); BITE (F; DAD); BLEEDING (F;
IED); BRONCHOSIS (1; APA; FNF); BURN (F; APA; IED; JFM); CELLULITE (1; BRU; FNF; HAD);
CHAFING (F; APA; FEL); CHILDBIRTH (F; CRC; DAD; JFM); COLD (1; APA; FNF); CONGESTION (1;
APA); COUGH (F; APA; CRC; DAD); CRAMP (1; FNF); CYSTOSIS (F; KOM; PHR; PH2); DEBILITY (F;
TRA); DERMATOSIS (F; IED); DIABETES (F; KOM; PHR; PH2); DIARRHEA (1; APA; FNF; KOM; PHR;
PH2); ECZEMA (F; DAV); ENTEROSIS (1; APA; PHR; PH2); ERUPTION (F; JFM); FEVER (F; APA; CRC);
FLU (1; APA); HEMORRHOID (1; CRC; FNF); HEPATOSIS (1; FNF; PHR; PH2); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
(1; BOW; GMH); HYPERKINESIS (1; DAD); INFECTION (1; APA; FNF; PHR); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF);
MALARIA (F; CRC); MASTOSIS (F; APA; CRC; JFM); NEPHROSIS (F; CRC; PHR; PH2); NIPPLE (F; FEL);
OBESITY (F; BRU; FNF; HAD); OPHTHALMIA (F; CRC; DAD); PARTURITION (F; APA); PREGNANCY (F;
APA); PROCTOSIS (F; JFM); RHEUMATISM (F; CRC); SCABIES (F; DAV); SCREW WORM (F; JFM); SNAKEBITE (F; CRC); THYROSIS (F; HH2); TUMOR (1; CRC); VAGINOSIS (F; JFM); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER
RETENTION (1; FNF); WORM (F; CRC); WOUND (F; DAD; JFM); WRINKLE (F; APA; CRC; DAD).
CACAO FOR ASTHMA:
• ANTIALLERGIC: FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN
• ANTIASTHMATIC: CAFFEINE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; THEOBROMINE; THEOPHYLLINE
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: THEOPHYLLINE
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITEXIN
• ANTILEUKOTRIENE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAFFEINE; CATALASE; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CYANIDIN; EPIGALLOCATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; ISOVITEXIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARICACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; POLYPHENOLS; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID;
QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; VANILLIC-ACID; VITEXIN
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: QUERCETIN
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANTISPASMODIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARICACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; THEOPHYLLINE; VALERIANIC-ACID; VALERIC-ACID
• BRONCHODILATOR: THEOBROMINE; THEOPHYLLINE
• BRONCHORELAXANT: LINALOOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: KAEMPFEROL; POLYPHENOLS; QUERCETIN
• EXPECTORANT: ACETIC-ACID; LINALOOL
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; EPIGALLOCATECHIN; ESCULETIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; POLYPHENOLS; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• MAST-CELL-STABILIZER: QUERCETIN
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
CACAO FOR CELLULITE:
• ANORECTIC: THEOBROMINE
• ANTICELLULITIC: THEOPHYLLINE
• ANTIEDEMIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; COUMARIN; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
• ANTIOBESITY: CAFFEINE
• CATABOLIC: CAFFEINE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• COLLAGEN-SPARING: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• COLLAGENIC: PROANTHOCYANIDINS
• DIURETIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; CAFFEINE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; DOPAMINE; GLYCOLIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL;
LUTEOLIN; QUERCITRIN; THEOBROMINE; THEOPHYLLINE
• LIPOLYTIC: NICOTINIC-ACID
• PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR: CAFFEINE
CACAO FOR DIARRHEA:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; ACETIC-ACID; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; ESCULETIN; FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; POLYPHENOLS; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIDIARRHEIC: POLYPHENOLS
• ANTISPASMODIC: CAFFEIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; P-COUMARICACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; THEOPHYLLINE; VALERIANIC-ACID; VALERIC-ACID
• ANTIVIRAL: (–)-EPICATECHIN; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAFFEINE; CATECHOL; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; ERGOSTEROL;
FERULIC-ACID; GENTISIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; LUTEOLIN; POLYPHENOLS; PROANTHOCYANIDINS; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; THEOPHYLLINE
• ASTRINGENT: FORMIC-ACID
• CANDIDICIDE: FERULIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• CANDIDISTAT: LINALOOL
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; FERULIC-ACID; LUTEOLIN; POLYPHENOLS;
PROANTHOCYANIDINS; QUERCETIN
• PROTISTICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; KAEMPFEROL
OTHER USES (CACAO) — FERMENTED SEEDS, CALLED CACAO BEANS, ARE USED FOR COMMERCIAL COCOA,
CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA BUTTER, WHICH IS WIDELY USED IN BAKED GOODS, BEVERAGES, CAKES, CANDY, CONFECTIONARY, DESSERTS, ICE CREAMS, PASTRIES, AND PUDDING. FERMENTED SEEDS ARE ROASTED, CRACKED, AND
GROUND TO GIVE A POWDERY MASS FROM WHICH FAT IS EXPRESSED. THIS IS THE COCOA FROM WHICH A POPULAR
BEVERAGE IS PREPARED. IN THE PREPARATION OF CHOCOLATE, THIS MASS IS MIXED WITH SUGAR, FLAVORING, AND
EXTRA COCOA FAT. MEXICAN CHOCOLATE AND THE SPANISH XOCOLATA A LA PEDRA ARE FLAVORED WITH CINNAMON.
TRADITIONALLY, NATIVE AMERICANS MIXED CACAO WITH CORN MEAL TO MAKE NUTRITIOUS BEVERAGES AND
GRUELS. TOASTED CACAO BEANS ARE MIXED WITH MAMEY SEEDS IN MAKING TEXATE, A REFRESHING BEVERAGE.
IN TABASCO, GROUND CACAO BEANS ARE MIXED IN DOUGH TO PREPARE POZOL, A FERMENTED MAIZE DOUGH.
THE RESULTING PRODUCT IS CALLED “CHOROTE.” PULP OF THE FRUIT IS SUCKED AS A SWEET SNACK OR PRESERVED,
CRYSTALLIZED, OR MADE INTO ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND VINEGAR. THE HUSK IS TOASTED UNTIL BLACK AND
MADE INTO ATOLE NEGRO. IT ALSO CONTAINS A PIGMENT THAT IS SAID TO BE USEFUL AS A FOOD COLORANT (FAC).
MILK CHOCOLATE INCORPORATES MILK AS WELL. COCOA EXTRACTS OCCUR IN MY TWO VERY FAVORITE LIQUEURS,
BAILEY’S IRISH CREAM AND CREME DE CACAO. COCOA POWDER IS USED TO COAT CALIFORNIA’S DRY MONTEREY
JACK CHEESE. COCOA BUTTER IS USED IN CONFECTIONS AND IN MANUFACTURE OF TOBACCO, SOAP, AND COSMETICS.
COCOA BUTTER HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS THE WORLD’S MOST EXPENSIVE FAT, USED RATHER EXTENSIVELY IN THE
EMOLLIENT “BULLETS” USED FOR HEMORRHOIDS. “SWEATINGS,” WHICH FLOW FROM THE PULP SURROUNDING THE
BEANS DURING FERMENTATION, ARE MADE INTO A JELLY IN BRAZIL. JUICE, ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, VINEGAR,
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SUGAR, AND PECTIN COULD ALSO BE PRODUCED. EVERY 1000 LB OF DRIED COCOA BEANS PRODUCES 930 LB OF
DRIED POD HUSK, WHICH CAN BE USED AS A SOURCE OF POTASH OR GROUND AND ADDED TO LIVESTOCK FEED,
IN LIMITED AMOUNTS (DAD, FAC).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (CACAO) — PROPAGATION MAY BE BY CUTTINGS, BUDDINGS, OR GRAFTINGS, BUT SEEDING
IS CHEAPER. SEEDS GERMINATE AT MATURITY AND ARE VIABLE ONLY A SHORT TIME. THEY MAY BE STORED
10–13 WEEKS IF MOISTURE CONTENT IS KEPT AT 50%. SOON AFTER PICKING, PULP IS REMOVED FROM
SEED, WHICH ARE PLANTED IN SHADED NURSERY BEDS OR BASKETS. TRANSPLANT IN A FEW MONTHS (WHEN
CA. 0.6 M TALL) INTO SHADED FIELDS AT 2.4 × 2.4 M OR 3.6 × 3.6 M. SPACING IS CLOSER IF SOILS ARE
POOR AND ELEVATIONS ABOVE 300 M. FIELDS SHOULD REMAIN SHADED FOR 3 YEARS. REMOVE FLORAL BUDS
UNTIL TREES ARE 5 YEARS OLD. CACAO IS OFTEN INTERCROPPED WITH OTHER TREES OF ECONOMIC VALUE
SUCH AS BANANAS, RUBBER, OIL PALM, OR COCONUT. WEEDING IS BY HAND OR HERBICIDES. IRRIGATION
MAY BE PRACTICED, BUT DRAIN DITCHES SHOULD ALWAYS BE PROVIDED TO PREVENT EXCESS WATER.
RESPONDS TO FERTILIZERS, MOSTLY IN THE ABSENCE OF SHADE. RECOMMENDED IS 5 CWT UREA, 2.5 CWT
TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE, 10 CWT POTASSIUM SULFATE/HA. WINDBREAKS ARE USUALLY PROVIDED. CAPABLE
OF BEARING PODS BY THE END OF THE SECOND YEAR, MAXIMUM YIELDS ARE USUALLY OBTAINED BY 8–10
YEARS, SOME PRODUCING PODS FOR OVER 100 YEARS. ALTHOUGH FRUITS MATURE THROUGHOUT THE YEAR,
USUALLY ONLY TWO HARVESTS ARE MADE. IN WEST AFRICA, THE MAIN HARVEST BEGINS IN SEPTEMBER,
EXTENDS TO FEBRUARY, WITH A SECOND SMALLER HARVEST IN MAY–JUNE. FROM FERTILIZATION TO HARVESTING THE FRUIT REQUIRES 5–6 MONTHS. HARVEST SEASON LASTS ABOUT 5 MONTHS. PODS ARE CUT FROM
TREES AND ALLOWED TO MELLOW ON THE GROUND. THEN, PODS ARE CRACKED AND THE BEANS REMOVED,
THE HUSKS ARE BURNED. BEANS ARE FERMENTED IN LEAF-LINED KEGS 2–8 DAYS BEFORE DRYING IN SUN,
AT WHICH TIME THEY CHANGE FROM PURPLE TO BROWN. BEANS ARE THEN BAGGED AND SHIPPED. FURTHER
PROCESSING INCLUDES ROASTING, CRUSHING, AND SEPARATING OUT THE KERNEL, GRINDING THE NIBS, AND
EXTRACTION OF ABOUT HALF OF THE FAT. THE WORLD LOW PRODUCTION YIELD IS 29 KG/HA IN AMERICAN
SAMOA, THE INTERNATIONAL PRODUCTION YIELD 346 KG/HA, AND WORLD HIGH PRODUCTION 2000 KG/HA
IN HAITI. YIELDS OF 3375 KG/HA OF DRY BEANS ARE POSSIBLE ON GOOD PLANTATIONS. THE OIL CONTENT
(35–50%) SUGGESTS POTENTIAL OIL YIELDS OF MORE THAN 1750 KG/HA. AVERAGE YIELDS RUN 0.5–10
KG/TREE; 0.5–2.5 MT BEANS/HA. OVER 3375 KG/HA OF DRY CACAO BEANS HAVE BEEN PRODUCED ON
PLANTATIONS WELL MANURED, WELL SHADED, AND WITH EXCELLENT CONTROL OF WEEDS, PESTS, AND DISEASES.
IN 1980, THE U.S. IS ESTIMATED TO HAVE CONSUMED MORE THAN 75,000 MT OF COCOA BUTTER, IN A
BUSINESS AMOUNTING TO NEARLY $600 MILLION. CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURERS CONSUMED NEARLY HALF.
ONE TON WENT INTO SUPPOSITORIES, 10–20% OF WHICH ARE MADE WITH A COCOA BUTTER BASE. MALAYSIA
AND BRAZIL ARE THE MAIN SOURCES FOR COCOA BUTTER, PROVIDING OVER HALF OF U.S. IMPORTS. COCOA
BUTTER IMPORTS WERE 19,000 MT WORTH $279 MILLION IN 1990.
CHEMISTRY (CACAO) — CAFFEIC ACID OCCURS IN THE UNFERMENTED BEANS. COCOA BUTTER CONTAINS MAINLY
TRIGLYCERIDES OF FATTY ACIDS THAT CONSIST PRIMARILY OF OLEIC, STEARIC, AND PALMITIC ACIDS. OVER 73% OF
THE GLYCERIDES ARE PRESENT AS MONOUNSATURATED FORMS (OLEOPALMITOSTEARIN AND OLEODISTEARIN), THE
REMAINING BEING MOSTLY DIUNSATURATED GLYCERIDES (PALMITODIOLEIN AND STEARODIOLEIN), WITH LESSER
AMOUNTS OF FULLY SATURATED AND TRIUNSATURATED (TRIOLEIN GLYCERIDES).
HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN CACAO. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE
PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER,
1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CAFFEINE — ADENOSINE ANTAGONIST; ANALEPTIC 200 SCU MUS; ANALGESIC-SYNERGIST; ANTIAPNEIC; ANTIAPOPTOTIC; ANTIASTHMATIC 5–10 MG/KG ORL/MAN; ANTICANCER; ANTICARCINOGENIC; ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTIDERMATITIC; ANTIEMETIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHYPOTENSIVE 250 MG/DAY/ORL/MAN;
ANTINARCOTIC ANTIOBESITY; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIRHINITIC 140 MG/DAY/ORL/MAN; ANTISEROTONINERGIC 40 IPR
RAT, 40 SCU RAT; ANTITUMOR; ANTITUMOR (LUNG); ANTIVACCINIA; ANTIVIRAL; APOPTOTIC; ARRHYTHMOGENIC
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
1500 MG/MAN; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CGMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CARDIOTONIC
10–25 ORL DOG, 65–500 ORL CAT; CATABOLIC; CHOLERETIC; CORONARY-DILATOR; CNS-STIMULANT 30 ORL RAT,
100 ORL MUS; DIURETIC; ENERGIZER 20–200 MG/MAN; ERGOTAMINE-ENHANCER; HERBICIDE; HYPERTENSIVE;
HYPOGLYCEMIC; INSECTICIDE; LIPOLYTIC; MYORELAXANT; NEUROTOXIC; PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; POSITIVE INOTROPIC; RESPIRASTIMULANT; SPASMOGENIC 1500 MG/MAN; STIMULANT; TACHYCARDIC 1500 MG/MAN;
TERATOGENIC 14 ORL RAT; TOPOISOMERASE-I-INHIBITOR 0.1 NM, 75 ΜM; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR 99
MM; VASODILATOR; LDLO = 192 ORL HMN; LD50 = 192 ORL RAT; LD50 = 127–1200 ORL MUS; LD50 =
200 ORL RAT; LD50 = 247–355 ORL RAT; LD50 = 224–246 ORL RBT.
LINOLEIC-ACID — SEE ALSO CERATONIA SILIQUA.
THEOBROMINE — ANORECTIC; ANTIASTHMATIC 10 MG/KG/ORL/MAN; ANTICELLULITIC; ARTERIODILATOR; BRONCHODILATOR; CARDIOTONIC; CAMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CGMP-PHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR;
CNS-STIMULANT; DIURETIC 300–600 MG/MAN/DAY; EMETIC; FETOTOXIC 100 MG/KG; HERBICIDE IC41 =
100 PPM; MYOCARDIOTONIC; MYORELAXANT; MYOSTIMULANT; STIMULANT; TERATOGENIC 100 MG/KG; VASODILATOR; LD50 = 200 ORL CAT; LD50 = 789 MG/KG IPR MUS; LD50 = 1356 MG/KG ORL MUS; LD50 = 950
MG/KG ORL RAT.
THEOPHYLLINE — ADI = 60–200 ORL/MAN/DAY; ALLERGIC; ANTIDOTE (CHARCOAL & PROPANOLOL); ANTIAPNEIC; ANTIASTHMATIC 5 MG/KG/ORL/MAN; ANTIBRADYARRHYTHMIC; ANTIBRONCHITIC; ANTICELLULITIC; ANTIEMPHYSEMIC; ANTINEURALGIC; ANTISPASMODIC 100 ΜM; ANTIRHINITIC; ANTIVIRAL; ARTERIODILATOR; BRONCHODILATOR; CAMP-INHIBITOR IC50 = 0.06 MG/ML; CARDIOVASCULAR 30 MG/KG ORL RAT; CAMPPHOSPHODIESTERASE-INHIBITOR; CGMP-INHIBITOR; CHOLERETIC; CNS-STIMULANT; DIURETIC 15 MG/KG IVN
RBT; FETOTOXIC 100 MG/KG; HERBICIDE IC58 = 100 PPM; HYPERTENSIVE; HYPERURICEMIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC; MYOCARDIOTONIC; MYORELAXANT 100 ΜM; POTITIVE INOTROPIC; PROSTAGLANDIN-SECRETOR 10 MG/KG
ORL RAT; STIMULANT; TACHYCARDIC; TERATOGENIC; VASODILATOR; LDLO = 100 ORL CAT; LD50 = 600 ORL MUS;
LDLO = 350 ORL RBT; LDLO = 115 IVN RBT; LD50 = 200 SCU MUS.
TRIGONELLA FOENUM-GRAECUM L. (FABACEAE)
FENUGREEK, GREEK CLOVER, GREEK HAY
MEDICINAL USES (FENUGREEK) — SAID TO BE USED FOR APHRODISIAC, ASTRINGENT, DEMULCENT, DIURETIC,
EMMENAGOGUE, EMOLLIENT, EXPECTORANT, LACTAGOGUE, RESTORATIVE, AND TONIC. ECBOLIC AND SPERMICIDAL
ACTIVITIES HAVE ALSO BEEN REPORTED. MUCILAGINOUS SEEDS ARE BELIEVED TO BE CARMINATIVE, EMOLLIENT,
TONIC, AND VERMIFUGAL, AND ARE USED FOR CHAPPED LIPS, DIARRHEA, ORAL ULCERS, RHEUMATIC CONDITIONS,
AND STOMACH IRRITATION. INDIAN WOMEN BELIEVE THE SEEDS PROMOTE LACTATION. CHINESE USE THE SEED
FOR ABDOMINAL PAIN, CHILBLAINS, CHOLECYSTOSIS, FEVER, HERNIA, IMPOTENCE, HYPOGASTROSIS, NEPHROSIS,
AND RHEUMATISM. MALAYANS POULTICE THE SEEDS ONTO BURNS AND USE THEM FOR CHRONIC COUGHS, DROPSY,
HEPATOMEGALY, AND SPLENOMEGALY. CRUSHED LEAVES ARE TAKEN INTERNALLY FOR DYSPEPSIA (CRC, KOM,
LIL, PH2, RIN, TAD).
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WEED (2002) SUGGESTS HEAVY CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN SPICES WHEN ESTROGEN LEVELS ARE DOWN.
SEEDS LIKE CARAWAY, CELERY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, POPPY AND SESAME, MUSTARD AND ANISE, FENNEL AND
FENUGREEK, ALL CONTAIN PHYTOESTROGENS, AS DO THEIR OILS, SAYS WEED. SHE SUGGESTS USING THESE SEEDS
“LAVISHLY” WHEN COOKING OR MAKING TEA WITH ANY ONE OF THEM, DRINKING 3–4 CUPS A DAY “FOR BEST
RESULTS” (WEED, 2002). TAKEN AS A TEA, OR USED TO SEASON FOOD, FENUGREEK SEED ARE A CHEAP AND
PLEASANT WAY TO EASE MENOPAUSAL SYMPTOMS, RESTORE BLOOD SUGAR BALANCE, AND INCREASE LIBIDO. BREW
A TABLESPOONFUL (15 MG) OF SEEDS FOR NO MORE THAN 15 MIN IN A CUP OF HOT WATER. “MAKE PHYTOSTEROLRICH FENUGREEK SEED TEA YOUR WAKE-UP AND GOOD-NIGHT BREW; YOU’LL HAVE EASIER HOT FLASHES AND
FLUSHES AND, WHEN YOU DO FLASH, YOUR SWEAT WILL SMELL LIKE SWEET MAPLE SYRUP” (WEED, 2002). BUT
SHE CAUTIONS THAT “FENUGREEK PROMOTES FERTILITY.” FENUGREEK IS ONE OF THREE ESTROGENIC PLANTS IN THE
ORIGINAL LYDIA PINKHAM’S FORMULA. COULD LYDIA PINKHAM’S IN LARGE DOSES HAVE HAD MASTOGENIC
PROPERTIES TO GO ALONG WITH ITS ANTIDYSMENORRHEIC AND ANTICLIMACTERIC PROPERTIES? FOLLOWING MY
COMMENTS IN THE GREEN PHARMACY (DUKE, 1997), ABOUT THE POTENTIAL THAT FENUGREEK MIGHT HAVE
FOR AUGMENTING THE SIZE OF MICROMASTIC BREASTS, I HAVE RECEIVED MANY LETTERS AND PHONE CALLS
SUGGESTING THAT YES, IT WORKED. THERE NOW ARE AT LEAST THREE COMMERCIAL BREAST-ENHANCING PRODUCTS,
USUALLY PRICED RATHER HIGHLY, CONTAINING FENUGREEK. I CAN’T GUARANTEE THAT IT ENLARGES THE BREAST, BUT
I’LL BET ON IT. FENUGREEK IS OFTEN RECOMMENDED TO ENHANCE THE FLOW OF MILK IN WOMEN WHO ARE
DEFICIENT, E.G., MOTHERS OF TWINS WHO HAVE ONLY ENOUGH MILK FOR ONE. I’M CONVINCED IT HELPS. MANY
LACTATION CONSULTANTS RECOMMEND IT. IN THE INTEGRATIVE HERB GUIDE FOR NURSES, LIBSTER (2002)
SUGGESTS FENUGREEK FOR HORMONE BALANCE, NOTING THAT SEVERAL MOTHERS IN HER PRACTICE USED FENUGREEK
SUCCESSFULLY TO INCREASE MILK PRODUCTION AND FLOW.
FENUGREEK HAS BEEN DOCUMENTED TO LOWER THE CHOLESTEROL IN A FEW CLINICAL TRIALS. AND CONTAINING
AT LEAST FIVE HYPOGLYCEMIC COMPOUNDS, IT CLEARLY HAS SOME PROMISE IN TYPE 2 DIABETES AND SYNDROME
X. THREE AND ONE-HALF OUNCES OF FENUGREEK FLOUR IN BREADS CONSUMED DAILY WAS GOOD AT LOWERING
FASTING BLOOD SUGAR. ONE-HALF OUNCE (15 G) POWDERED FENUGREEK IN WATER LOWERS POSTPRANDIAL BLOOD
GLUCOSE (TAD). IN TURKEY, DIABETICS TAKE 2 TSP GROUND SEED WITH A GLASS OF WATER, A.M. AND P.M.
(SPI). I THINK THESE ACTIVITIES MORE IMPORTANT THAN THOSE APPROVED BY GERMANY’S COMMISSION E,
DERMATITIS AND LOSS OF APPETITE. COMMISSION E ALSO ACKNOWLEDGES THAT IT IS ANTISEPTIC, RUBEFACIENT,
AND SECRETOLYTIC. TREATING RATS WITH SEED FOR FOUR WEEKS SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED THE QUANTITY OF
CALCIUM OXALATE DEPOSITED IN THE KIDNEYS, SUPPORTING SAUDI FOLKLORE (JE26:249).
FENUGREEK IS NOT OFTEN ON THE LIPS OF CANCER PATIENTS, BUT OF THE SPICES CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK,
IT IS THE BEST SOURCE OF SELENIUM, EXCEPT FOR SPECIALLY GROWN GARLIC AND BRAZIL NUT. ACCORDING TO
BOIK (2001), AT LEAST 35 IN VITRO STUDIES SUGGEST SELENIUM HAS CYTOTOXIC EFFECTS ON DIFFERENT CANCER
LINES, USUALLY AT LEVELS OF 3–9 ΜM. TWENTY MORE SHOW ANTITUMOR ACTIVITY IN ANIMAL STUDIES. EPIDEMIOLOGY SUGGESTS THAT 200 ΜG SELENIUM/DAY WILL PREVENT COLON, LUNG, AND PROSTATE CANCER. SELENIUM
HAS BEEN USED IN SOME STUDIES WITH BRAIN CANCER PATIENTS, REDUCING THE SIDE EFFECTS OF CHEMOTHERAPY.
ALL IN ALL, STUDIES SUGGEST SELENIUM SUPPLEMENTATION MAY HELP PREVENT AND TREAT CANCER. SELENIUM,
IN SMALL AMOUNTS, IS NEEDED FOR ANTIOXIDANT GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE. EFFECTS ON CANCER MAY ALSO
ACCRUE TO REDOX ACTIVITY. BOIK (2001) IDENTIFIES SELENIUM AS A PTK-INHIBITOR THAT MAY SECONDARILY
HELP AFFECT CAMS, INDUCE APOTOSIS, INHIBIT ANGIOGENESIS, INHIBIT CELL MIGRATION AND INVASION, INHIBIT
EICOSANOID EFFECTS, INHIBIT HISTAMINIC EFFECTS, INHIBIT NF-KB ACTIVITY, INHIBIT PLATELET AGGREGATION,
AND INHIBIT TNF. SO WE HAVE ONE TRACE MINERAL THAT COULD REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER. BOIK
CALCULATES TENTATIVE HUMAN DOSAGES AS 2.3–5.8 MG/DAY (AS SCALED FROM ANIMAL ANTITUMOR STUDIES),
SUGGESTING A TARGET DOSE OF 3.7 MG/DAY SELENIUM, WAY ABOVE THE 200 ΜG NORMALLY PRESCRIBED TO
HUMANS FOR NONCANCEROUS CONDITIONS (BOIK, 2001).
AND TRIGONELLINE HAS BEEN SHOWN TO SIGNIFICANTLY INHIBIT LIVER CARCINOMA IN MICE. IT IS REPORTEDLY
USED AS A PESSARY FOR CERVICAL CANCER IN CHINA. IN MY DATABASE, FENUGREEK IS THE BEST SOURCE OF
DIOSGENIN (TO 1.9%), WHICH IS ONE STARTER MATERIAL FOR NATURAL PROGESTERONE, WHICH, TOPICALLY APPLIED,
BETTER THAN ORAL PROGESTERONE, CAN HELP OR HELP REGULATE BREAST CANCER, CERVICAL DYSPLASIA, DYSMENORRHEA, ENDOMETRIAL CANCER, ENDOMETRIOSIS, HOT FLASHES, MENOPAUSE, METRORRHAGIA, OSTEOPOROSIS,
OVARIAN CYSTS, PMS, AND UTERINE FIBROIDS.
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
U.S. PATENT NO. 5,900,329 DESCRIBES THE ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF A FENUGREEK EXTRACT TO STRENGTHEN
SKIN AND HORNY SUBSTANCES, PARTICULARLY CLAWS, HOOVES, AND NAILS OF ANIMALS, AND TO STIMULATE OR
REVITALIZE GROWTH OF EPIDERMAL STRUCTURES, LIKE HAIRS, BASED ON TRIGONELLINE, TRIGONELLIC ACIDS AND
BIOTIN. THE PATENT CLAIMS IT TAKES 3–4 MONTHS FOR FENUGREEK ALONE TO ACCOMPLISH THIS, WHILE WITH
GINSENG AND/OR HORSECHESTNUT ADDED, THE STIMULUS IS EVIDENT WITHIN 1 MONTH. THUS, THE PATENT COVERS
PROPECIC CLAIMS. CAVEAT EMPTOR (DEAN, K., 2000, PLANT PATENTS, HERBALGRAM NO. 50., P. 31).
ACCORDING TO SAMBAIAH AND SRINIVASAN (1989) FENUGREEK STIMULATED LIVER MICROSOMAL CYTOCHROME P450 DEPENDENT ARYL HYDROXYLASE. PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) SUGGEST THAT FENUGREEK
DECREASED LEVELS OF PHOSPHATASE AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES.
INDICATIONS (FENUGREEK) — ABSCESS (F; WOI); ADENOSIS (F; CRC; HHB); AGING (F; BOW); ALACTEA
(1; PH2; WOI); ALLERGY (F; PED); ALOPECIA (1; APA; KAP; MAD); ANEMIA (1; GMH; SPI); ANOREXIA
(2; APA; CAN; KOM; PH2; JAC7:405); APOSTEME (F; JLH); ARTHROSIS (1; KOM); ATHEROSCLEROSIS
(1; BGB; FNF; SKY); BACKACHE (F; BOW); BACTERIA (1; FNF; WOI); BOIL (F; BGB; GMH; KAP);
BRONCHOSIS (F; APA; PH2); BURN (F; CRC); CALCULUS (1; APA); CANCER (1; APA); CANCER, ABDOMEN
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BLADDER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, BREAST (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, CERVIX (1;
BOW); CANCER, COLON (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, EYE (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, GLAND (1; FNF; JLH);
CANCER, GROIN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, INTESTINE (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, KIDNEY (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER,
LIVER (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, PAROTID (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, RECTUM (1; FNF; JLH; MAD); CANCER,
SPLEEN (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, STOMACH (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, TESTES (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, THROAT
(1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, UTERUS (1; FNF; JLH); CANCER, UVULA (1; FNF; JLH); CARBUNCLE (F; GMH;
KAP); CATARRH (F; PH2); CELLULOSIS (F; BOW); CERVICOSIS (F; BOW); CHILDBIRTH (1; APA; BGB;
BOW); CHILBLAIN (F; CRC); CHOLECYSTOSIS (F; CRC); COLIC (F; KAP); CONSTIPATION (1; SKY; SPI);
COLITIS (F; PH2); COUGH (F; APA; PED; PH2); CYSTOSIS (F; JLH; SKJ); DEBILITY (F; MAD); DERMATOSIS
(2; APA; CRC; FNF; PHR; PH2); DIABETES (NIDDM) (2; APA; BRU; CAN; CRC; FNF); DIARRHEA
(1; APA; CRC; KAP); DYSENTERY (F; HHB; KAB); DYSGEUZIA (F; KAB); DYSMENORRHEA (F; BGB);
DYSPEPSIA (2; APA; CAN; FNF; PHR); ECZEMA (1; BGB; PHR; PH2); EDEMA (1; BGB; BOW; FNF;
SKJ); ENTEROSIS (F; APA; BGB; CRC; PH2; WOI); EXHAUSTION (F; MAD); FEVER (F; APA; CRC; PH2);
FISTULA (F; CRC); FUNGUS (1; FNF); FURUNCULOSIS (F; BGB; HHB; PHR); GAS (1; APA); GASTROSIS (F;
APA; BGB; CAN; GMH); GOUT (F; BGB; CAN; CRC; GMH); HAY FEVER (F; PED); HEMORRHOID (F;
MAD); HEPATOSIS (1; CRC; FNF; JLH; KAP); HERNIA (F; APA; BGB; CRC; PH2); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (1; CAN; FNF); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (2; APA; BRU; CAN; FNF; SKY); HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES
(1; BGB; FNF; SKY); HYPERGLYCEMIA (1; FNF); HYPERLIPIDEMIA (1; BGB; FNF); IMPOTENCE (F;
APA; CRC; PH2); INFECTION (1; APA; FNF; WOI); INFLAMMATION (2; APA; BRU; FNF; KOM; PH2);
KIDNEY STONE (1; JE26:249); LEUKORRHEA (F; KAP); LYMPHADENOSIS (F; BGB; CAN); MASTOSIS (F;
JLH); MYOSIS (F; BGB; CAN); NEPHROSIS (F; APA; CRC; JLH); NEURALGIA (F; APA; CRC); NEURASTHENIA (F; BOW; GMH); OPHTHALMIA (F; JLH); ORCHOSIS (F; JLH); OSTEOMYELOSIS (F; HHB; MAD);
OXALURIA (1; APA); PAIN (1; PH2; TAD); PAROTOSIS (F; JLH); PMS (F; BGB); PROCTOSIS (F; JLH; MAD);
RACHOSIS (F; MAD); RESPIROSIS (F; APA; PH2); RHEUMATISM (F; APA; CRC); SCIATICA (F; CRC);
SCROFULA (F; GMH; HHB); SMALLPOX (F; KAB; KAP); SORE (F; APA; BGB; MAD; PH2); SORE THROAT
(1; APA; CRC; MAD); SPERMATORRHEA (F; BOW); SPLENOSIS (F; HHB; KAP); SPLENOMEGALY (F; CRC;
KAB); STOMATOSIS (F; APA); STONE (1; JE26:249); STRESS (1; FNF); SWELLING (F; HHB; KAB; PHR);
SYNDROME-X (1; SYN); SYPHILIS (F; SKJ); TUBERCULOSIS (F; APA; CRC; HHB; MAD; SPI); TUMOR
(F; CRC); ULCER (1; APA; PNC); ULCUS CRURIS (F; HHB); UTEROSIS (F; JLH); VAGINOSIS (F; BGB); VD
(F; SKJ); VOMITING (F; PH2); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF); WOUND (F; BGB; HHB).
FENUGREEK FOR DERMATOSIS:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; GENTIANINE; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIBACTERIAL: APIGENIN; CARPAINE; GENTIANINE; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUTEOLIN;
P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIDERMATITIC: APIGENIN; BIOTIN; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN; VITEXIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: APIGENIN; COUMARIN; DIOSGENIN; FENUGREEKINE; GENISTEIN; GENTIANINE;
GITOGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; ORIENTIN; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SALICYLATES; SUPEROXIDE-DISMUTASE; VICENIN-2; VITEXIN
• ANTISEPTIC: KAEMPFEROL; OXALIC-ACID; TRIGONELLINE
• ANTISTRESS: DIOSGENIN; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN
• DEMULCENT: MUCILAGE
• FUNGICIDE: COUMARIN; FORMONONETIN; GENISTEIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• IMMUNOMODULATOR: SAPONINS
• MDR-INHIBITOR: GENISTEIN
FENUGREEK FOR DIABETES:
• ALDOSE-REDUCTASE-INHIBITOR: COUMARIN; GENISTEIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; PCOUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; VITEXIN
• ANTIAGGREGANT: APIGENIN; COUMARIN; GENISTEIN; KAEMPFEROL; PHYTIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY: QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIDIABETIC: PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN; ISOORIENTIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; ISOVITEXIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUTEOLIN; ORIENTIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SUPEROXIDE-DISMUTASE; VITEXIN
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: ISOORIENTIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCETIN
• ANTIRADICULAR: ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTITHROMBIC: QUERCETIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: DIOSGENIN; FORMONONETIN; GENISTEIN; LIGNIN; NICOTINIC-ACID; PHYTICACID; RUTIN; TRIGONELLINE
• HYPOGLYCEMIC: COUMARIN; FENUGREEKINE; GENTIANINE; NICOTINIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN;
SALICYLATES; TRIGONELLINE
• INSULINASE-INHIBITOR: NICOTINIC-ACID
• INSULINOGENIC: QUERCETIN
• INSULINOTONIC: NICOTINIC-ACID
FENUGREEK FOR HIGH CHOLESTEROL:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: APIGENIN; COUMARIN; GENISTEIN; KAEMPFEROL; PHYTIC-ACID; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES
• ANTIATHEROGENIC: RUTIN
• ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC: GENISTEIN; PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIDIABETIC: PYRIDOXINE; QUERCETIN; RUTIN
• ANTIHOMOCYSTINURIC: PYRIDOXINE
• ANTIISCHEMIC: GENISTEIN
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: QUERCETIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: APIGENIN; GENISTEIN; ISOORIENTIN; ISOQUERCITRIN; ISOVITEXIN; KAEMPFEROL; LIGNIN; LUTEOLIN; ORIENTIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYTIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; SUPEROXIDE-DISMUTASE; VITEXIN
• CHOLERETIC: APIGENIN; KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; NICOTINIC-ACID; P-COUMARIC-ACID; QUERCITRIN
• DIURETIC: APIGENIN; CARPAINE; FENUGREEKINE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID; ISOQUERCITRIN;
KAEMPFEROL; LUTEOLIN; QUERCITRIN
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: DIOSGENIN; LUTEOLIN; QUERCETIN
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: DIOSGENIN; FORMONONETIN; GENISTEIN; LIGNIN; NICOTINIC-ACID; PHYTICACID; RUTIN; TRIGONELLINE
• HYPOLIPIDEMIC: FORMONONETIN; PHYTIC-ACID
• HYPOTENSIVE: APIGENIN; CARPAINE; FENUGREEKINE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID; GENTIANINE;
ISOQUERCITRIN; KAEMPFEROL; QUERCETIN; QUERCITRIN; RUTIN; VITEXIN
OTHER USES (FENUGREEK) — WIDELY CULTIVATED AS A CONDIMENT CROP, FENUGREEK SEEDS, CONTAINING
COUMARIN, ARE USED IN CURRIES, SALADS, AND SOUPS (LIL). SEEDS ARE ALSO USED IN TEAS, BLENDING NICELY
WITH MINT FLAVORED COMBINATIONS (RIN). ROASTED SEEDS ARE USED AS A COFFEE SUBSTITUTE. IN LEBANON,
A MILKSHAKE-LIKE HYPOTENSIVE BEVERAGE IS MADE BY GRINDING THE GREEN SEED AFTER SOAKING. IN GREECE,
RAW OR BOILED SEEDS ARE EATEN WITH HONEY. IN NORTH AFRICA, FENUGREEK IS MIXED WITH BREADSTUFFS. I
MADE MY OWN ARTIFICIAL MAPLE SYRUP WITH FENUGREEK SEED BOILED IN WATER, SWEETENED WITH STEVIA.
IT HAD THAT GREAT MAPLE SCENT, BETTER ON ICE CREAM THAN ON PANCAKES. THE PREDOMINANT SCENT IN MANY
PREPARED CURRY POWDERS, IT CAN OVERRIDE ALL OTHER AROMAS IN AN INDIAN SPICE SHOP. IN SOUTH INDIA,
IT IS FOUND IN CHUTNEYS, LENTIL DISHES, PICKLES, AND VEGETABLES, AND WITH POTATO, EGGPLANT, AND
CAULIFLOWER (AAR). PASTIRMA (OR BASDERMA), A SPICED DRIED BEEF IN ARMENIA AND TURKEY, IS CURED
WITH FENUGREEK POWDER, GARLIC, ALLSPICE, CUMIN, BLACK PEPPER, CINNAMON, NUTMEG, AND CLOVES, AND
COLORED RED WITH PAPRIKA AND GROUND RED CHILES. THIS SPICE MIXTURE IS CALLED “CHAIMAN” (OR CHEMEN),
AS IS THE FENUGREEK ITSELF (AAR). TURKS REPORT THAT A BONED PIECE OF BEEF, ROUGHLY 40 × 20 × 10
CM, IS RUBBED WITH SALT AND ALLOWED TO DRY. THE SPICE MIX, 34% POWDERED GARLIC, 20% FENUGREEK,
6.5% CAYENNE, 1.5% CUMIN AND MUSTARD, AND 38% WATER, IS APPLIED TO THE MEAT, DRYING TO A RED
CRUST. THE MEAT IS THEN HEATED TO 60-65°C FOR AROUND 4 HOURS, THEN LEFT TO CURE UP TO 12 DAYS AT
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (SPI). JEWISH HILBEH IS MADE BY POURING BOILING WATER OVER ABOUT 2 TBSP OF
GROUND FENUGREEK AND LETTING IT SIT UNDISTURBED FOR SEVERAL HOURS OVERNIGHT. THE RESULTING JELLY IS
BEATEN AT HIGH SPEEDS, ADDING A PINCH OF SALT, A LITTLE LEMON JUICE, SOME CAYENNE PEPPER (OR GARLIC,
GINGER, CARAWAY OR CARDAMOM SEEDS, CHOPPED TOMATOES, FINELY CHOPPED CHILES, AND CORIANDER).
REFRIGERATED HILBEH WILL KEEP FOR A WEEK (AAR). HAREM WOMEN ARE SAID TO EAT ROASTED FENUGREEK
SEED TO ATTAIN BUXOMNESS. MIXED WITH COTTONSEED, THE SEED INCREASES THE FLOW OF MILK IN COWS BUT
IMPARTS THE FENUGREEK AROMA TO MILK. PLANT SERVES AS A POTHERB, MUCH FAVORED IN INDIA. SPROUTS
AND SEEDLINGS ARE SAID TO MAKE GOOD SALAD DRESSED WITH OIL AND VINEGAR. SPROUTED SEEDS CAN BE
BRAISED IN OLIVE OIL WITH PARBOILED CARDOON STALKS. FOR SPROUTS, SOAK 1 OR 2 TBSP SEEDS IN WARM
WATER FOR A FEW HOURS, THEN LAY THEM ON WET PAPER TOWEL IN A SEALED, OPAQUE GLASS CONTAINER. ONEFOURTH INCH IS AMPLE GROWTH FOR THE SPROUTS (AAR). IN THE NEAR EAST, SPROUTING SEEDS ARE ADDED TO
A LAMB STEW TRADITIONALLY FLAVORED WITH HONEY. IN INDIA, GREEN LEAVES ARE EATEN AS METHI. FRESH
METHI, COOKED AS A GREEN, IS A FAVORITE SERVED WITH FISH. HIGHLY SEASONED WITH TURMERIC, CUMIN,
AJOWAN, FRESH GINGER, AND CHILES, THE LEAVES ARE MIXED WITH CORNMEAL AND FRIED AS FRITTERS. IN IRAN,
FRESH OR DRIED, LEAVES ARE USED TO ADD STRONG FLAVOR TO STEWS, SOUPS AND ASHES, THICK, NOURISHING,
AMIN-COURSE SOUPS. LEAVES ARE USUALLY FIRST SAUTÉED IN OIL WITH OTHER GREEN VEGETABLES AND HERBS,
E.G., CELERY, LEEKS, PARSLEY, SCALLIONS, OR SPINACH. FENUGREEK IS IN GHORMEH SABZI, A RICH, DARK GREEN
MIX OF HERBS, BEANS, DRIED LIMES, AND SOME MEAT (AAR). WITH ITS BITTER TASTE, SOMEWHAT LIKE LOVAGE
AND CELERY, IT MIGHT BE USEFUL IN VEGETARIAN BOUILLON (LIL). SEEDS AND LEAVES MAY BE BREWED INTO
A PLEASANT TEA. FOR NORTHERNERS, ATTEMPTING TO MAKE LIQUEURS THAT CALL FOR TONKA OR VANILLA, FENUGREEK
SEED MAY BE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE (LIL). I OFTEN ADD THE SEED TO HOMEMADE HERBAL LIQUEURS AND TEAS.
THE LIQUEUR I CALL “LYDIA’S DOWNER” HAS HYPOGLYCEMIC FENUGREEK AND SEVERAL REPORTEDLY HYPOTENSIVE
HERBS, FENNEL, ELECAMPANE, PARSLEY, TARRAGON, AND A DASH OF RUE (CAUTION: PHOTOSENSITIZER), STEEPED
IN THE CHEAPEST GIN (LIL). I NOW SUGGEST ADDING METHI LEAVES TO LYDIA’S DOWNER AS AN ANESTHETIC.
I ALSO SUGGEST A “LYDIA’S LADY’S LIQUEUR” WITH ANGELICA, ANISE, COHOSH (NOT CONTAINING FORMONONETIN,
AS PER STUDIES IN 2001), FENUGREEK, FENNEL, AND RED CLOVER FLOWERS AS A POOR FEMINISTS ALTERNATIVE TO
REMIFEMIN. THE CELERY-SCENTED OIL IS USED IN BUTTERSCOTCH, CHEESE, LICORICE, PICKLE, RUM, SYRUP, AND
VANILLA FLAVORS. USED ALSO IN COSMETICS, HAIR PREPARATIONS, AND PERFUMERY. INDIANS GROW THE PLANT
T
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
AS A FORAGE. CONSIDERED A GOOD SOIL RENOVATOR. FENUGREEK IS A SOURCE OF DIOSGENIN, USED IN THE
SYNTHESIS OF HORMONES. AS WITH OTHER CHEMURGIC CROPS, A LARGE PERCENTAGE MUST BE THROWN INTO THE
POT TO EXTRACT A SMALL PERCENTAGE (1–2% ON A DRY WEIGHT BASIS) OF PHARMACEUTICAL (DIOSGENIN);
PROTEINS, FIXED OILS, OLEORESINS, E.G., COUMARIN, MUCILAGES, AND/OR GUMS MIGHT ALSO BE EXTRACTED.
ORGANIC RESIDUES MIGHT BE USED FOR BIOMASS FUELS OR MANURES, INORGANIC RESIDUES FOR “INORGANIC”
CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS. THE HUSK OF THE SEED MIGHT BE REMOVED FOR ITS MUCILAGE, WITH THE REMAINDER
PARTITIONED INTO OIL, SAPOGENIN, AND PROTEIN-RICH FRACTIONS. SEED MUCILAGE (CA. 45%) COULD BE
PREPARED FROM THE MARC LEFT AFTER EXTRACTION OF THE FIXED OIL (USED AS A LACTAGOGUE). ITS RELATIVELY
HIGH VISCOSITY MAKES IT A GOOD EMULSIFYING AGENT TO BE USED IN PHARMACEUTICAL AND FOOD INDUSTRIES.
DUE TO ITS NEUTRAL IONIC PROPERTIES, IT IS COMPATIBLE WITH OTHER DRUGS OR COMPOUNDS SENSITIVE TO
ACIDS. PLANT IS USED TO MAKE HORSE HAIR SHINY. POWDERED SEEDS ARE USED LOCALLY FOR A YELLOW DYE
(AAR, CRC, FAC, LEG).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (FENUGREEK) — FOR TEMPERATE ZONE INSTRUCTIONS FOR NORTH AMERICANS, I READILY RECOMMEND THE BIG BOOK OF HERBS (TAD). THE FOLLOWING COMMENTS ARE DERIVED LARGELY FROM OTHER
SOURCES, ORIENTED MORE TO THE THIRD WORLD. SEEDS LONG RETAIN THEIR VIABILITY. SEED MAY BE SOWN IN
THE FALL IN MILD CLIMATE, OR IN THE SPRING FARTHER NORTH, AND GERMINATE IN 4–5 DAYS. SEED SHOULD BE
SOWN IN CLOSE DRILLS CA. 7.5 CM APART, THE ROWS CA. 45 CM APART, OR BROADCAST AT CA. 22.5 KG/HA. DEEP
PLOWING AND THOROUGH HARROWING ARE ESSENTIAL. CLEAN CULTIVATION, EITHER MECHANICAL OR MANUAL, IS
NECESSARY. IN SOUTHERN INDIA, FENUGREEK IS INTERCROPPED WITH CORIANDER, GINGELLY, OR BENGAL GRAM.
FOR SEED PRODUCTION, POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID HAVE BEEN RECOMMENDED; FOR FORAGE, NITROGENOUS
MANURES. WHEN GROWN AS AN IRRIGATED CROP, SEEDS ARE BROADCAST RATHER THICKLY ONTO BEDS AT THE RATE
OF 25–30 KG/HA AND THEN STIRRED INTO THE SOIL. IRRIGATION SHOULD START IMMEDIATELY AFTER SOWING AND
CONTINUE WHEN NECESSARY. SEEDS RIPEN SOME 3–5 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING. PODS RETAIN THEIR SEED SHELL
(DON’T READILY SHATTER). MANUALLY, THE PLANTS ARE UPROOTED AND DRIED A FEW DAYS BEFORE THRESHING.
SEEDS ARE THEN FURTHER DRIED. SEED YIELDS OF 500–3500 KG/HA MAY BE EXPECTED; FODDER/FORAGE YIELDS
20–10 MT/HA (LEG, LIL).
CHEMISTRY (FENUGREEK) — HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN FENUGREEK. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
DIOSGENIN — SEE ALSO COSTUS SPECIOSUS.
FENUGREEKINE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIVACCINIA; ANTIVIRAL; CARDIOTONIC; DIURETIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC;
HYPOTENSIVE; VIRISTAT.
SELENIUM — ANALGESIC 200 ΜG/DAY; ANORECTIC; ANTIACNE 200 ΜG/DAY; ANTIAGGREGANT; ANTIANGIOGENIC
2 ΜM, 230 ΜG/KG ORL RAT; ANTICANCER; ANTICIRRHOTIC; ANTICORONARY 200 ΜG/DAY; ANTIDANDRUFF; ANTIDOTE
(MERCURY); ANTIKESHAN; ANTILEUKEMIC 1.6 MG/KG IPR MUS; ANTILEUKOTRIENIC; ANTIMELANOMIC 480
ΜG/KG; ANTIMETASTATIC 480 ΜG/KG; ANTIMYALGIC 200 ΜG/DAY; ANTIOSTEOARTHRITIC; ANTIOXIDANT 100–200
(–400) ΜG/MAN/DAY; ANTIPROLIFERANT 2 ΜM; ANTIRADICULAR 100–200 (–400) ΜG/MAN/DAY; ANTI-SYNDROME-X 100–200 (–400) ΜG/MAN/DAY; ANTITUMOR 100–200 (–400) ΜG/MAN/DAY; ANTITUMOR (BRAIN)
38–150 ΜG/KG; ANTITUMOR (BREAST) 0.8 MG/KG SCU MUS, 150 ΜG/KG DIET RAT, 230 ΜG/KG ORL RAT;
ANTITUMOR (LUNG) 240 ΜG/KG DIET; ANTIULCEROGENIC; AP-1-INHIBITOR 2–50 ΜM; APOPTOTIC; DEPRESSANT; FUNGICIDE; IMMUNOSTIMULANT 100–200 (–400) ΜG/MAN/DAY; NF-KB-INHIBITOR; ODC-INHIBITOR;
POLYAMINE-SYNTHESIS-INHIBITOR; PROTEIN-KINASE-C-INHIBITOR IC50 = 2–50 ΜM; PROSTAGLANDIN-SPARER;
VEGF-INHIBITOR; RDA = 10–75 ΜG/DAY; PTD = 1 MG/DAY.
TRIGONELLINE — ANTIMIGRAINE; ANTISEPTIC; ANTITUMOR (CERVIX); ANTITUMOR (LIVER); EPIDERMAL-STIMULANT; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; HYPOGLYCEMIC 500–3000 MG/MAN/DAY, 50 MG/KG ORL RAT; MUTAGENIC;
OSMOREGULATOR; PROPECIC; LDLO = 5000 SCU RAT; LD50 = 5000 ORL RAT.
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
V
VANILLA PLANIFOLIA JACKS (ORCHIDACEAE)
VANILLA
SYNONYMS — MYROBROMA FRAGRANS SALISB., VANILLA FRAGRANS AUCT.
MEDICINAL USES (VANILLA) — THIS IS ONE OF THE FEW SPICES IN THIS BOOK THAT CLEARLY HAS MORE
CULINARY THAN MEDICINAL INTEREST. STILL IT WAS USED AS A GALENICAL AND A CARRIER FOR OTHER LESS TASTEFUL
INGREDIENTS. REPORTED TO BE APHRODISIAC, CARMINATIVE, STIMULANT, AND VULNERARY. VENEZUELANS USE THE
PODS AGAINST FEVERS AND SPASMS. YUCATANESE USE VANILLA EXTRACT (POD STEEPED IN ALCOHOL) AS APHRODISIAC AND STIMULANT. ARGENTINEANS USE IT AS AN ANTISPASMODIC, APHRODISIAC, OR EMMENAGOGUE. IN
PALAU, VANILLA IS USED FOR DYSMENORRHEA, FEVER, AND HYSTERIA. VANILLA IS SAID TO INHIBIT CARIES, PROBABLY
BECAUSE OF THE CATECHIN.
ADESANYA AND SOFOWORA (1995) INVESTIGATED SEVERAL AROMATIC ALDEHYDES KNOWN TO FORM IMINE
ADDUCTS WITH AMINO GROUPS, THEREBY INHIBITING THE GELATION OF THE HEMOGLOBIN. O-VANILLIN PROVED
MOST ACTIVE >2,3-DIHYDROXYBENZALDEHYDE > SALICYLALDEHYDE >2,4-DIHYDROXYBENZALDEHYDE > P-VANILLIN >M-ANISALDEHYDE > P-HYDROXYBENZALDEHYDE > GUAIACOL. THE ACTIVITY OF THE O-VANILLIN IS DOSE
DEPENDENT (ADESANYA AND SOFOWORA, 1995). AT LEAST FIVE OF THESE COMPOUNDS ARE FOUND IN VANILLA.
REGRETTABLY, ADESANYA AND SOFOWORA (1995) DID NOT REPORT IF A MIX OF THESE ALDEHYDES WAS ADDITIVE
OR SYNERGISTIC. THE VERY PLEASANT VANILLA IS MY RICHEST SOURCE OF VANILLIN, THE UNPLEASANT ASAFETIDA
MY SECOND RICHEST SOURCE. VANILLIC ACID, ALSO REPORTEDLY USEFUL IN SICKLE CELL, IS MOST ABUNDANT IN
PIRCORRHIZA BUT IS GENEROUSLY REPRESENTED IN THE SPICES, CORIANDER AT ALMOST 1000 PPM (ZMB), ONION
AT CA. 250, AND HORSERADISH AT 45 PPM. SHAUGHNESSY ET AL. (2001) ELUCIDATED THE ANTIMUTAGENIC
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
EFFECTS OF VANILLIN, BEST REPRESENTED IN VANILLA (CA. 3%, ZMB), AND CINNAMALDEHYDE, BEST REPRESENTED
IN CINNAMON (CA. 3%, ZMB). VANILLIN IS ALSO CHOLERETIC (ABS, DAD, JFM).
VANILLA IS NOT MUCH BETTER AS AN ANTISEPTIC THAN AS A MEDICINE. A STUDY BY NIELSEN AND RIOS
(2000) SHOWED THE VOLATILES OF VANILLA TO BE COMPLETELY INEFFECTIVE AT INHIBITING GROWTH OF VARIOUS
BREAD MOLDS: PENICILLIUM COMMUNE, P. ROQUEFORTI, ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS, AND ENDOMYCES FIBULIGER, USING
VOLATILE EOS AND OLEORESINS (OL) FROM SPICES AND HERBS. MUSTARD EO WAS MOST EFFICACIOUS, WITH
CINNAMON, CLOVE, AND GARLIC HIGHLY ACTIVE, OREGANO SLIGHTLY ACTIVE, AND VANILLA INACTIVE (X11016611).
BUT THE VANILLIN SEEMS TO BE SYNERGISTIC WITH MORE REPELLANT VOLATILE OILS, LIKE TURMERIC, CITRONELLA,
AND CITRUS. TAWATSIN ET AL. (2001) SHOWED THAT VOLATILE OIL FROM TURMERIC REPELLED AEDES AEGYPTI,
ANOPHELES DIRUS, AND CULEX QUINQUEFASCIATUS, ESPECIALLY WITH THE ADDITION OF 5% VANILLIN, UNDER
CAGE CONDITIONS FOR UP TO EIGHT HOURS. VARIOUS VOLATILE OILS CAN BE FORMULATED WITH VANILLIN AS
MOSQUITO REPELLENTS TO REPLACE DEET.
FRENCH ENOLOGISTS TEISSEDRE AND WATERHOUSE (2000) STUDIED ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF EOS OF
SPICES AND CULINARY HERBS. THEY NOTE THAT EOS ARE IMPORTANT AS ANTIBACTERIALS AND ANTIFUNGALS, AS
FLAVORANTS AND PRESERVATIVES WHEN ADDED TO FOODS, AND AS COSMETICS, FOR THEIR AROMATIC AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES. IN THEIR SURVEY OF 23 EOS, STAR ANISE WAS MOST POTENT (IC83 = 2 ΜM); EO OF VANILLA
WAS NOT SO STRONG (IC40 = 2 ΜM, IC66 = 5 ΜM) (JAF4:3801).
THE CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS IN THE PLANT MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. WORKERS WITH VANILLA MAY EXHIBIT
DERMATITIS, HEADACHE, AND INSOMNIA, ALL SYMPTOMS OF VANILLISM. SEVERAL TOXIC COMPOUNDS ARE PRESENT
IN MINOR QUANTITY. GRAS § 182.10, 182.20, AND 169.3.
INDICATIONS (VANILLA) — BACTERIA (1; FNF); CANCER (1; FNF); CARIES (1; CRC; DAD); CRAMP (1;
FNF); DYSMENORRHEA (F; CRC; DAD; FNF; HHB); FEVER (F; CRC; DAD); FUNGUS (1; FNF);
HEPATOSIS (1; FNF); HYSTERIA (F; CRC; DAD; HHB); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF); INFECTION (1;
FNF); INFLAMMATION (1; FNF); NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); PAIN (1; FNF); POLYP (F; JLH); RHINOSIS (F;
JLH); SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA (1; FNF); TUMOR (1; FNF); VIRUS (1; FNF); WATER RETENTION (1; FNF).
VANILLA FOR CANCER:
• ANTIAGGREGANT: ANISYL-ALCOHOL; CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULICACID; SALICYLATES
• ANTIANDROGENIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIARACHIDONATE: EUGENOL
• ANTICANCER: BENZALDEHYDE; CATECHIN; CATECHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMIC-ACID-ETHYLESTER; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; P-CRESOL; PHENOL; PIPERONAL; SALICYLICACID; SYRINGALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTICARCINOGENIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIESTROGENIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: CATECHIN; FERULIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES; SALICYLIC-ACID; SYRINGALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE;
VANILLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• ANTILEUKEMIC: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE
• ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT: CATECHIN
• ANTIMELANOMIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMETASTATIC: COUMARIN
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: ANISALDEHYDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; CINNAMYL-ALCOHOL; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; N-NONACOSANE; P-CRESOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIN
• ANTINEOPLASTIC: FERULIC-ACID
• ANTINITROSAMINIC: FERULIC-ACID
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIOXIDANT: CATECHIN; CATECHOL; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; SYRINGALDEHYDE; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN; ZINGERONE
• ANTIPEROXIDANT: PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN: CATECHIN; EUGENOL; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTITHROMBOXANE: EUGENOL
• ANTITUMOR: BENZALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; SALICYLIC-ACID; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ANTIVIRAL: CATECHIN; CATECHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CHEMOPREVENTIVE: COUMARIN; LIMONENE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; SALICYLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• CYTOTOXIC: CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: CATECHIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: BENZALDEHYDE; CATECHIN; COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE
• LYMPHOCYTOGENIC: COUMARIN
• LYMPHOKINETIC: COUMARIN
• ORNITHINE-DECARBOXYLASE-INHIBITOR: FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE
• PROSTAGLANDIGENIC: FERULIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• SUNSCREEN: FERULIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
VANILLA FOR CRAMP:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; PHENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; PHENOL
• ANTICONVULSANT: EUGENOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES; SALICYLIC-ACID; SYRINGALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE;
VANILLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• ANTISPASMODIC: BENZALDEHYDE; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLYL-ALCOHOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CARMINATIVE: EUGENOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; SALICYLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE
• SEDATIVE: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; LIMONENE
• TRANQUILIZER: CINNAMALDEHYDE
VANILLA FOR INFECTION:
• ANALGESIC: COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; PHENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• ANESTHETIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; GUAIACOL; PHENOL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: ACETIC-ACID; ACETOPHENONE; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE; O-COUMARIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIEDEMIC: CATECHIN; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; SYRINGALDEHYDE
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; N-HENTRIACONTANE; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLATES; SALICYLIC-ACID; SYRINGALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE;
VANILLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• ANTILYMPHEDEMIC: COUMARIN
• ANTISEPTIC: ANISIC-ACID; BENZALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; BENZYL-ALCOHOL; CATECHOL; CRESOL;
ETHYL-VANILLATE; EUGENOL; FORMIC-ACID; FURFURAL; GUAIACOL; LIMONENE; OXALIC-ACID; P-CRESOL;
PHENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE
• ANTIVIRAL: CATECHIN; CATECHOL; CINNAMALDEHYDE; FERULIC-ACID; LIMONENE; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; VANILLIN
• ASTRINGENT: CATECHIN; FORMIC-ACID
• BACTERISTAT: COUMARIN; MALIC-ACID; N-HEXACOSANE
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: EUGENOL; SALICYLIC-ACID
• CIRCULOSTIMULANT: CINNAMALDEHYDE
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; SALICYLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• FUNGICIDE: ACETIC-ACID; ACETOPHENONE; ANISALDEHYDE; BENZOIC-ACID; CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; COUMARIN; ETHYL-VANILLATE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; FURFURAL; O-COUMARIC-ACID;
OCTANOIC-ACID; PHENOL; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID; SALICYLIC-ACID; UMBELLIFERONE; VANILLIN
• FUNGISTAT: FORMIC-ACID; LIMONENE
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: BENZALDEHYDE; CATECHIN; COUMARIN; FERULIC-ACID; PROTOCATECHUIC-ACID
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: CATECHIN; CINNAMALDEHYDE; UMBELLIFERONE
OTHER USES (VANILLA) — WHEN THE CONQUISTADORS ENTERED MEXICO, UNDER CORTEZ, IN THE 16TH CENTURY,
THEY LEARNED OF THE BLACK POD “TLILXOCHITL,” AZTEC WORD FOR THE VANILLA POD. LEGEND HAS IT THAT
MONTEZUMA GAVE CORTEZ HONEY-SWEETENED CHOCOLATE, FLAVORED WITH VANILLA, IN GOLDEN GOBLETS.
SUBJECTS OF MONTEZUMA OFFERED HIM VANILLA BEANS AS TRIBUTE. FULL-GROWN, UNRIPE PODS OF THIS ORCHID,
WHEN PROPERLY DRIED OR CURED, CONTAIN VANILLIN USED IN FLAVORING ALL KINDS OF CONFECTIONERY, USUALLY
IN THE FORM OF VANILLA ESSENCE, EXTRACT, OR TINCTURE. TRUE VANILLA BEANS POSSESS A PURE, DELICATE SPICY
FLAVOR AND A PECULIAR BOUQUET NOT DUPLICATED EXACTLY BY THE SYNTHETIC PRODUCT. VANILLA EXTRACT IS
USED TO FLAVOR BEVERAGES, CAKES, CHOCOLATES, CONFECTIONS, CUSTARDS, ICE CREAMS, LIQUEURS, PUDDINGS,
SOFT DRINKS, SYRUPS, AND YOGURTS. IT IS ALSO USED IN PERFUMES, SACHET POWDERS, AND SOAP. HIGHEST
MAXIMUM USE LEVEL IS NEARLY 10,000 PPM FOR VANILLA IN BAKED GOODS. VANILLA IS THE MAIN FLAVORING
OF GALLIANO, AN ITALIAN LIQUEUR, CONTAINING SEVERAL (UP TO 40) OTHER BOTANICALS. GALLIANO IS AN
INGREDIENT OF THE HARVEY WALBANGER COCKTAIL (FAC). VANILLA SUGAR, MADE BY STORING VANILLA BEANS
IN GRANULATED OR CONFECTIONER’S SUGAR FOR CA. A WEEK, IS USED AS AN AROMATIC, FLAVORFUL DECORATION
FOR BAKED GOODS, FRUIT, AND OTHER DESSERTS (FAC). VANILLA IS THE MOST POPULAR FLAVOR IN THE U.S.,
ACCOUNTING FOR CA. 1
/3 OF ALL ICE CREAM SALES. ICE CREAM IS THE LARGEST USER OF NATURAL VANILLA, MAKING
UP HALF THE VANILLA MARKET. VANILLA IS SAID TO ALLEVIATE THE SWEET TOOTH OF OBESE PEOPLE FEARING DENTAL
CARIES; THE VANILLA EXTRACT CUTTING BACK ON THE SUGAR REQUIREMENT FOR FRESH FRUIT SALADS IN REDUCING
DIETS. THE CATECHIN IS SAID TO CURB CARIES. MOST VANILLA FLAVORINGS USED IN BAKING, CONFECTIONARY,
AND MANY FROZEN DESSERTS, CONTAIN SOME VANILLIN, ETHYL VANILLIN, VANITROPE, OR A COMBINATION OF
THESE. VANILLIN ACCOUNTS FOR >90% OF THE U.S. MARKET FOR VANILLA FLAVORINGS. MOST VANILLIN OF
COMMERCE IS PREPARED SYNTHETICALLY FROM LIGNIN. IT HAS SERVED AS A POISON BAIT FOR FRUIT FLIES,
GRASSHOPPERS, AND MELON BEETLES. A VANILLA-SCENTED COTTON BALL CAN SERVE AS A PERFUMING SACHET IN
A DRESSER DRAWER (RIN). “THE SCENT OF VANILLA IS A DELICIOUS PERFUME. POUR A FEW DROPS OF VANILLA
EXTRACT ON A SMALL PIECE OF ABSORBENT COTTON AND TUCK IT IN YOUR BRA” (DO NOT PUT THE VANILLA EXTRACT
ON YOUR SKIN; IT MAY BE IRRITATING)(DAD, RIN).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (VANILLA) — BOWN (2001) SUGGESTS MOIST, RICH, WELL-DRAINED SOILS IN HUMID ZONES,
WITH DAY TEMPERATURES 26–30°C (79–86°F), AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES 16°C (61°F). THOUGH
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PROPAGATED BY SEED, VANILLA IS MORE USUALLY PROPAGATED BY LONG CUTTINGS, USUALLY WITH 12–24
INTERNODES, SINCE THESE CAN BEAR FRUIT IN 1–2 YEARS IF PLANTED AT ONSET OF RAINY SEASON. SHORT
CUTTINGS DO NOT FRUIT FOR 3 OR 4 YEARS. PLACE SUPPORTS CA. 2.7 M APART, WITH ONE VINE PER PROP;
SOME 1600 VINES/HA ARE POSSIBLE. PLANTS MAY BE SPACED L.2 M APART IN ROWS 2.5 M APART, GIVING
4000 VINES/HA. MANY TYPES OF SUPPORT TREES ARE USED, THESE PROVIDING ABOUT 50% SHADE. HOWEVER,
SPACING OF SUPPORT PLANTS AND VANILLA VINES VARIES GREATLY IN DIFFERENT AREAS. TRELLISES ARE ALSO
USED IN SOME AREAS. WEEDS LIKE GUATEMALA GRASS, OR A FAST-GROWING LEGUME, MAY BE USED FOR
MULCH. DO NOT USE ANIMAL MANURE. POTASH AND LIME ARE NECESSARY. VINES MUST BE PRUNED TO KEEP
THE FRUITS WITHIN REACH OF HAND-PICKERS. DISEASED PLANTS MUST BE REMOVED. THE TIP OF VINE SHOULD
BE CLIPPED ABOUT 9 MONTHS BEFORE FLOWERING SEASON. FLOWERING PLANTS NEED DAILY ATTENTION. FLOWERS
MUST BE POLLINATED AND THE REMAINING BUDS REMOVED FROM THE INFLORESCENCE. AFTER FRUITING, OLD
STEMS SHOULD BE CUT AWAY. IN MEXICO, A SMALL CROP IS GATHERED 3 YEARS AFTER PLANTING, AND CROPS
INCREASE UNTIL THE NINTH OR TENTH YEAR, WHEN DECLINE BEGINS. PLANTS HAVE BEEN KNOWN TO BEAR FOR
30–40 YEARS (DAD). VANILLA BEANS ARE HAND CUT OR BROKEN OFF AS THEY RIPEN TO A YELLOW COLOR AND
DEVELOP A HARD BLACK TIP. PICKED BEANS ARE PLACED ON RACKS FOR 24 HR BEFORE THEY ARE WRAPPED IN
MATS OR WOOL BLANKETS FOR SWEATING AND FERMENTATION. BEANS ARE REPEATEDLY SWEATED BETWEEN THE
BLANKETS IN THE SUN, OR IN OVENS DURING THE DAY, AND PACKED IN WOOL COVERED BOXES AT NIGHT FOR
ABOUT TWO MONTHS, DURING WHICH TIME THE PODS LOSE 70–80% OF THEIR ORIGINAL WEIGHT AND TAKE
ON THE CHARACTERISTIC ODOR AND COLOR OF THE COMMERCIAL VANILLA. AFTER BEANS ARE FERMENTED, THEY
ARE DRIED FOR 8-L2 DAYS. YIELDS AVERAGE ABOUT 115 G CURED BEAN PER PLANT, MORE THAN 450 G OF
GREEN BEAN. ONE HECTARE OF VINES (ABOUT 1500) YIELDS 110 KG OF CURED PODS IN MEXICO, 150 KG
IN HAWAII, AND 100 KG IN SEYCHELLES. IT TAKES 3.3 KILOS OF GREEN VANILLA FRUIT TO YIELD L KILO OF
DRIED PREPARED PODS (DAD).
CHEMISTRY (VANILLA) — SUN ET AL. (2001) STATE THAT MORE THAN 180 VOLATILE COMPOUNDS HAVE
BEEN IDENTIFIED FROM CURED VANILLA BEANS, MORE THAN ONE-THIRD AROMATIC. NOTING THE RELATIVE
BUG-RESISTANCE OF THE VANILLA LEAVES IN THE GREENHOUSE, THEY STUDIED ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF LEAVES
AND STEMS. THE ETHYL ACETATE FRACTION WAS MORE TOXIC TO MOSQUITO LARVAE, WITH 4-ETHOXYMETHYLPHENOL, 4-BUTOXYMETHYLPHENOL, VANILLIN, 4-HYDROXY-2-METHOXYCINNAMALDEHYDE, AND 3,4-
DIHYDROXYPHENYLACETIC ACID. 4-ETHOXYMETHYLPHENOL WAS THE PREDOMINANT COMPOUND, BUT 4-
BUTOXYMETHYLPHENOL SHOWED GREATER TOXICITY TO MOSQUITO LARVAE. FOUR OF THE FIVE KILLED THE
MOSQUITO LARVAE WITHIN 24 HR. GREEN VANILLA BEANS CONTAIN TWO GLYCOSIDES, GLUCOVANILLIN
(AVENEIN) AND GLUCOVANILLIC ALCOHOL. VANILLIN IS PRINCIPAL FLAVORING CONSTITUENT, ABOUT L.5–2%
FOR MEXICAN AND 2.6% FOR BOURBON. PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981) DEDICATE MORE THAN FOUR PAGES
OF TABULATIONS TO THE CHEMISTRY OF VANILLA. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND
IN VANILLA. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC
PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE
HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
CATECHIN — ALLELOCHEMIC IC86 = 1 MM; ANESTHETIC; ANTIAGGREGANT IC68 = 200 ΜG/ML; ANTIALCOHOLIC 2000 MG/MAN/DAY; ANTIARTHRITIC; ANTIATHEROSCLEROTIC; ANTIBACTERIAL MIC = >1000 ΜG/ML;
ANTICANCER; ANTICARIOGENIC; ANTIEDEMIC; ANTIENDOTOXIC; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIFLU; ANTIHEPATOSIS 1
G/3×/DAY/MAN; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHERPETIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC 1000 MG 5×/DAY/MAN; ANTIINFLAMMATORY IC50 = 80 ΜM (CF INDOMETHACIN IC50 = 1 ΜM); ANTILEUKEMIC IC50 = >10 ΜG/ML;
ANTILIPOPEROXIDANT; ANTIOSTEOTIC 500 MG/3×/DAY; ANTIOXIDANT IC50 = 0.19 ΜM, 2.4 × VIT. E, 2
/3
QUERCETIN; ANTIPERIODONTAL; ANTIPLAQUE; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50 = 80 ΜM (CF INDOMETHACIN IC50
= 1 ΜM); ANTIRADICULAR IC50 = 8 ΜM; ANTISCLERODERMIC; ANTISTRESS; ANTIULCER 1 G/5×/DAY/MAN/ORL;
ANTIVIRAL; ASTRINGENT; CARCINOGENIC; COMP-INHIBITOR; COX-1-INHIBITOR IC50 = 80 ΜM (CF
INDOMETHACIN IC50 = 1 ΜM); FUNGICIDE ED50 = 2.9–4.6 ΜG/ML; HEMOSTAT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE;
HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC; HYPOLIPEDEMIC; IMMUNOSTIMULANT; LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR IC96 = 5 MM;
NEUROPROTECTIVE 1–10 ΜM; PROPECIC; XANTHINE-OXIDASE-INHIBITOR.
V
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
VANILLIC-ACID — ANTIBACTERIAL 1.5–15 MG/ML; ANTICANCER; ANTIFATIGUE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOXIDANT IC21 = 30 PPM; ANTIRADICULAR (7 × QUERCETIN); ANTISICKLING; ANTITUMOR; ASCARICIDE; CHOLERETIC;
IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE; LAXATIVE; UBIQUICT; VERMIFUGE.
VANILLIN — ADI = 10 MG/KG; ALLELOCHEMIC IC50 = 4.26 MM; ANTICANCER; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIOXIDANT (= ASCORBIC ACID); ANTIPOLIO; ANTIRADICULAR (7 × QUERCETIN); ANTIVIRAL; CHOLERETIC; FUNGICIDE;
IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE; INSECTIFUGE; IRRITANT; LD50 = 1580 ORL RAT.
W
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
W
WASABIA JAPONICA (MIQ.) MATSUM. (BRASSICACEAE)
JAPANESE HORSERADISH, WASABI
SYNONYMS — ALLIARIA WASABI PRANTL, COCHLEARIA WASABI SIEB., EUTREMA JAPONICA (MIQ.)
KOIDZ., E. WASABI MAXIM., LUNARIA JAPONICA MIQ., WASABIA PUNGENS MATSUM., W. WASABI
(MAXIM.) MAKINO.
MEDICINAL USES (WASABI) — THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF OTHER CRUCIFEROUS VEGGIES ALSO ACCRUE TO THE
WASABI, MAKING IT ONE OF THOSE THAT ARE ESPECIALLY USEFUL FOR PREVENTING CANCER. THESE ARE ALL
GENEROUSLY ENDOWED WITH HEALTH-GIVING, SULFUR CONTAINING COMPOUNDS, LIKE ISOTHIOCYANATES AND
SULFORAPHANE, TO NAME SOME RECEIVING A LOT OF PRESS LATELY. I THINK THAT MOST OF THE ACTIVITIES AND
INDICATIONS GIVEN FOR HORSERADISH COULD ACCRUE AS EASILY TO WASABI WERE IT AS WELL STUDIED AMONG
OCCIDENTALS. DR. HIDEKI MASUDA, PH.D., DIRECTOR OF THE MATERIAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES AT OGAWA & CO., LTD., IN JAPAN, REPORTS (PERS. COMM.) THAT A PHYTOCHEMICAL IN WASABI
PREVENTS TOOTH DECAY IN LABORATORY TESTS. ISOTHIOCYANATES, WHICH ARE REPORTED FROM WASABI, ARE KNOWN
TO POSSESS ANTISEPTIC AND BACTERICIDAL PROPERTIES. DR. MASUDA HYPOTHESIZED AND DEMONSTRATED THAT
ISOTHIOCYANATES WOULD INHIBIT THE GROWTH OF STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS, THE BACTERIA THAT CAUSES DENTAL
CARIES, IN TEST-TUBE STUDIES. ONE OF 12 ISOTHIOCYANATES HE ISOLATED EFFECTIVELY INHIBITED THE ENZYME
GLUCOSYLTRANSFERASE (GTF), AN ENZYME THAT CATALYZES THE FORMATION OF GLUCAN FROM SUCROSE BY WHICH
STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS FORM PLAQUE ON TEETH. STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS PRODUCES LACTIC ACID ON PLAQUE
AND INITIATES TOOTH DECAY. HE ALSO REPORTS OTHER HEALTH BENEFITS FOR WASABI: PREVENTION OF PROSTATE
CANCER, PREVENTION OF HARMFUL BLOOD CLOT FORMATION, ANTIASTHMATIC PROPERTIES, AND ANTI-PARASITIC
PROPERTIES (MASUDA, PERS. COMM. 2001). ANDY WEIL (SELF HEALING MARCH 2001) SUGGESTS HORSERADISH
(AND WASABI) FOR BATTLING STUFFY SINUS: “YOU CAN THIN MUCUS AND CONGESTION WITH FRESH HORSERADISH.
CLEAN AND PEEL A PRESS ROOT, GRATE OR GRIND AFTER CHUNKING, ADDING ENOUGH VINEGAR TO MOISTEN.” I’LL
ADD THAT, IF MAKING THE SAUCE DOESN’T OPEN YOUR SINUSES AND MAKE YOUR NOSE RUN, THEN ITS TIME TO
EAT IT (WEIL, A. 2001. AND IT CAN BE USED AS A SINUS-OPENING SEAFOOD SAUCE, OF GREEN WASABI AND
RED KETCHUP, LAVISHLY LASHED WITH LEMON JUICE, AND SERVED WITH BOILED SHRIMP, IF NOT SUSHI.
ONE REPORT IN NEW YORK, AND ANOTHER IN CALIFORNIA, RECOUNT SERIOUS ADVERSE EFFECTS DUE TO
INGESTION OF A GENEROUS PORTION OF WASABI: WHITE FACE, CONFUSION, PROFUSE SWEATING, EVEN COLLAPSE
(TAD). THIS RESPONSE COULD BE SERIOUS IN PATIENTS WITH WEAKENED BLOOD VESSELS IN THE BRAIN OR
HEART (RIN). ONE PERSON REPORTEDLY SUFFERED “VASOMOTOR NEAR COLLAPSE” AFTER INGESTING A SMALL
AMOUNT (ALL IN ONE BITE, SINCE HE DID NOT KNOW WASABI). DINERS IN JAPANESE RESTAURANTS SHOULD KNOW
THAT GREEN WASABI PASTE IS MEANT TO BE MIXED WITH TAMARI (SOY SAUCE) AND USED IN VERY SMALL AMOUNTS
(LIBSTER, 2002).
INDICATIONS (WASABI) — ASTHMA (1; ABS); BACTERIA (1; ABS); CANCER (1; FNF; TAD); CANCER,
LUNG (1; X10822125); CANCER, PROSTATE (1; ABS); CARIES (1; ABS); CONGESTION (F; ABS); FUNGUS
(1; X10571166); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; FNF); INFECTION (1; X10571166); MYCOSIS (1;
X10571166); PARASITE (1; ABS); SINUSOSIS (1; ABS); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; ABS); THROMBOSIS (1; TAD);
TRYPANOSOMIASIS (1; FNF); VIRUS (1; FNF).
W
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WASABI FOR CANCER:
• ANTICANCER: 6-METHYL-SULFINYL-HEXYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; SINIGRIN
• ANTICARCINOMIC: 6-METHYL-SULFINYL-HEXYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
• ANTIMUTAGENIC: 4-PENTENYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE; ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
WASABI FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANTISEPTIC: ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
• DECONGESTANT: ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: SINIGRIN
OTHER USES (WASABI) — OCCURS IN JAPAN AND EASTERN SIBERIA AS A CULTIVAR, THE ROOTS, TWIGS, AND
PETIOLES USED AS A SPICE, ESPECIALLY WITH FISH DISHES. IT’S THE HOT GREEN HORSERADISH-LIKE SPICE SO OFTEN
SERVED WITH JAPANESE CUISINE, E.G., SASHIMI (SLICES OF RAW FISH) AND SUSHI (A PIECE OF RAW SEAFOOD ON A
BED OF RICE). THE FLESHY RHIZOMES ARE GRATED INTO THE ATTRACTIVE GREEN PASTE. JAPANESE CONSIDER IT DISTINCT
FROM, AND PUNGENTLY SUPERIOR TO, COMMON HORSERADISH. IN THE U.S., IT IS SOLD IN JAPANESE-AMERICAN STORES
AS A CAN OF DRY POWDER, TO WHICH ONE MERELY ADDS 3
/4 TSP WATER TO 1 TSP POWDER. MIXED WITH SOY SAUCE,
THE POWDER BECOMES A PIQUANT AND TASTY DIP. IT IS USED TO DECORATE CARROTS AND CUCUMBERS AND WITH SUCH
DISHES AS “NIGRI ZUSHI” (SMALL KNEADED BALL OF SOUR RICE WITH SLICED FISH), “NORIMAKI ZUSHI” (JAPANESE
SOUR RICE IN SHEETS OF NORI, A MARINE RED ALGAE, WITH CUCUMBER AND/OR SHITAKE), AND “SOBA” (COLD BUCKWHEAT
NOODLES). LEAVES, FLOWERS, LEAFSTALKS, AND FRESHLY SLICED RHIZOMES ARE SOAKED IN SALT WATER AND THEN MIXED
WITH SAKE (JAPANESE RICE WINE) LEES TO MAKE A POPULAR PICKLE CALLED “WASABI-ZUKE” (FAC, TAD).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (WASABI) — THIS HERBACEOUS PERENNIAL, TO ALMOST A FOOT AND A HALF TALL, IS HARDY TO
ZONE 8, ACCORDING TO TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000). BOWN (2001) SUGGEST ZONES 6–9 WITH TEMPERATURES OF 10–15°C (50–59°F) IN THE GROWING SEASON. STREAM TEMPERATURES MUST BE KEPT AT 10–13°C
(50–57°F) BECAUSE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES THE PLANTS FAIL AND DISEASES SUCCEED. IT TOLERATES 50–80%
SHADE, SLIGHTLY ALKALINE, ORGANIC SOILS, BUT IS BEST GROWN RATHER LIKE WATERCRESS, OF THE SAME FAMILY,
IN COOL RUNNING WATER. COOL, SPRING-FED STREAMS IN LIMESTONE FOREST ARE BEST. JAPANESE ARTIFICIALLY
WIDEN STREAM BEDS WITH ROCK WALLS AND ELABORATE TERRACES ESPECIALLY FOR WASABI PRODUCTION. IN
JAPAN, PROPAGATED FROM TWO-YEAR-OLD RHIZOME OFFSETS, TRANSPLANTED IN SPRING, THESE WILL SOON FORM
LARGE CLUMPS WITH CLUSTERS OF HEART SHAPED LEAVES. OFFSETS ARE SPACED ABOUT 10 × 18 IN (25 × 45
CM). NITROGEN-RICH ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ARE APPLIED IN NOVEMBER AND MARCH. PLANTS ARE USUALLY
HARVESTED IN JUNE IN JAPAN, DIGGING THE PLANTS, SEPARATING OFFSHOOTS FOR NEXT YEAR’S PLANTINGS, AND
WASHING THE RHIZOMES AND REMOVING THE LEAVES. YIELDS MAY ATTAIN 2 TONS/A TO 4.5 MT/HA (TAD).
CHEMISTRY (WASABI) — MORIMITSU ET AL. (2002) FOUND THAT WASABI IS THE RICHEST SOURCE OF 6-METHYLSULFINYLHEXYL ISOTHIOCYANATE (6-HITC), AN ANALOGUE OF SULFORAPHANE (4-METHYLSULFINYLBUTYL ISOTHIOCYANATE) ISOLATED FROM BROCCOLI, AS THE MAJOR GST-INDUCER IN WASABI. 6-HITC IS A POTENTIAL ACTIVATOR OF
NOVEL DETOXIFICATION PATHWAYS (11706044). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN
WASABI. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL
COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
ALLYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE — ANTIASTHMIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIFEEDANT; ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTISEPTIC; COUNTERIRRITANT; DECONGESTANT; EMBRYOTOXIC; FUNGICIDE MIC = 1.8–3.5 ΜG/ML; HERBICIDE IC100 = 0.4 MM;
INSECTIPHILE; MUTAGENIC; NEMATIOVISTAT 50 ΜG/ML; SPICE FEMA 1–80 PPM; LD50 = 339 ORL RAT.
6-METHYLSULFINYLHEXYL-ISOTHIOCYANATE — ANTICARCINOMIC; ANTITUMOR.
4-PENTENYL-ISOTHIOCYANTE — ANTIMUTAGENIC.
X
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
X
XYLOPIA AETHIOPICA (DUNAL) A. RICH (ANNONACEAE)
ETHIOPIAN PEPPER, GUINEA PEPPER, NEGRO PEPPER, SPICE TREE
MEDICINAL USES (ETHIOPIAN PEPPER) — IMPORTANT IN AFRICAN FOLK MEDICINE. IN NIGERIA, IT IS USED AS
A CANCER REMEDY (JLH). FRUIT EXTRACTS AND BARK DECOCTION ARE USED FOR BRONCHITIS, BILIOUSNESS, DYSENTERY,
AND PAINFUL FEBRILE CONDITIONS. CONGOLESE STEEP BARK IN PALM WINE, SUGGESTING ONE TO TWO GLASSES A DAY
FOR ASTHMA, RHEUMATISM, AND STOMACHACHE. CONCENTRATED ROOT DECOCTION USED AS MOUTHWASH IN TOOTHACHE. FRUITS USED TO COUNTER PAIN AND AS A CARMINATIVE AND LAXATIVE. USED ALSO AS ANTHELMINTHIC, THEY
ARE ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED IN PUERPERIUM. ITS ANALGESIC PROPERTY IS USEFUL FOR CHEST PAIN, DERMATOSIS,
HEADACHE, LUMBAGO, NEURALGIA, PARTURITION, RIB ACHE, AND SIDEACHE. THE FRUITS WERE SUSPECTED TO ENHANCE
FERTILITY AND AID DELIVERY. IT WAS EVEN BELIEVED ABORTIFACIENT. FRUITS ARE PARTICULARLY HIGH IN ZINC, PERHAPS
A SOLID RATIONALE FOR RECOMMENDING CONSUMPTION DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION (X8616672).
XYLOPIC ACID AND TWO OTHER DITERPENE ISOLATES WERE FOUND TO HAVE ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES WHEN
TESTED AGAINST FIVE MICROORGANISMS, BACILLUS SUBTILIS, CANDIDA ALBICANS, ESCHERICHIA COLI,
PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (X600023). OXOPHOEBINE AND LIRIODENINE
SHOWED SELECTIVE TOXICITY AGAINST DNA REPAIR AND RECOMBINATION DEFICIENT MUTANTS OF THE YEAST
SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISAE, WHILE OXOGLAUCINE, O-METHYLMOSCHATOLINE, AND LYSICAMINE WERE INACTIVE.
BIOACTIVE OXOAPORPHINE ALKALOIDS MAY ACT AS DNA TOPOISOMERASE INHIBITORS (X8158166).
AND EXTRACTS SHOWED CARDIOVASCULAR AND DIURETIC ACTIVITY AND DISPLAYED LOW TOXICITY (LC50 =
0.5–5.0 NG/ML). THE DITERPENE KAURENOIDS SHOWED SIGNIFICANT SYSTEMIC HYPOTENSIVE AND CORONARY
VASODILATORY EFFECT ACCOMPANIED WITH BRADYCARDIA, PERHAPS DUE TO CALCIUM ANTAGONISTIC MECHANISM.
THE DIURETIC AND NATRIURETIC EFFECTS FOUND WERE COMPARABLE TO CHLOROTHIAZIDE (X11535360).
INDICATIONS (ETHIOPIAN PEPPER) — AMENORRHEA (F; UPW); ASTHMA (F; UPW); BACTERIA (1; FNF);
BILIOUSNESS (F; UPW); BOIL (F; UPW); BRONCHOSIS (F; FNF; UPW); CANCER (F; FNF; JLH; UPW);
CARDIOPATHY (1; X11535360); CHILDBIRTH (F; UPW); CONSTIPATION (F; UPW); CONVULSION (F; UPW);
COUGH (F; UPW); DERMATOSIS (F; FNF; UPW); DYSENTERY (F; FNF; UPW); EPILEPSY (F; UPW); HEADACHE
(F; FNF; UPW); HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (1; X11535360); INFERTILITY (F; UPW); LUMBAGO (F; UPW);
NEURALGIA (F; UPW); PAIN (F; UPW); PNEUMONIA (F; FNF; UPW); PYORRHEA (F; UPW); RESPIROSIS (F;
UPW); RHEUMATISM (F; FNF; UPW); RIB ACHE (F; UPW); ROUNDWORM (F; UPW); SIDE ACHE (F; UPW);
STOMACHACHE (F; UPW); TOOTHACHE (F; FNF; UPW); WATER RETENTION (1; X11535360); WORM (F; UPW).
ETHIOPIAN PEPPER FOR CARDIOPATHY:
• ANTIATHEROGENIC: RUTIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: PIPERINE; RUTIN
• ANTIHEMORRHOIDAL: RUTIN
• ANTIOXIDANT: RUTIN
• CARDIOTONIC: PIPERINE
• HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC: RUTIN
• HYPOTENSIVE: PIPERINE; RUTIN
X
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• SEDATIVE: LIRIODENINE
• VASODILATOR: LIRIODENINE
ETHIOPIAN PEPPER FOR DYSENTERY:
• ANTIBACTERIAL: LIRIODENINE; PIPERINE; RUTIN
• ANTIHEPATOTOXIC: RUTIN
• ANTISEPTIC: PIPERINE
• ANTISPASMODIC: PIPERINE; RUTIN
• ANTIVIRAL: RUTIN
• CANDIDICIDE: LIRIODENINE
• CARMINATIVE: PIPERINE
• HEPATOPROTECTIVE: PIPERINE
ETHIOPIAN PEPPER FOR EDEMA:
• ANALGESIC: LIRIODENINE; PIPERINE
• ANESTHETIC: PIPERINE
• ANTICAPILLARY-FRAGILITY: RUTIN
• ANTIEDEMIC: PIPERINE; RUTIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: PIPERINE; RUTIN
• LIPOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: RUTIN
OTHER USES (ETHIOPIAN PEPPER) — FRUITS PROBABLY MOST IMPORTANT AS SPICE. SEEDS AND FRUITS ONCE
EXPORTED FROM AFRICA TO EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES AS A PEPPERY SPICE. NOW MOSTLY OF LOCAL USE IN
AFRICA TO SEASON COFFEE, PALM WINE, AND LOCAL DISHES (FAC). ADDED TO PURIFY DIRTY WATER. FRUITS EVEN
SMOKED LIKE A PUNGENT TOBACCO. PULVERIZED FRUITS ADDED TO SNUFFS TO INCREASE THE PUNGENCY. FRUITS
WERE GROUND WITH RED PEPPER (CAPSICUM) AND COLA TO REPEL THE KOLA WEEVIL. SEEDS ALSO USED AS A
SPICE, DISTINCT FROM THE FRUITS. MIXED WITH OTHER SPICES, THEY ARE RUBBED ON THE BODY AS A COSMETIC
AND SCENT. LEAVES MACERATED IN PALM WINE TO MAKE AN INTOXICANT. BARK IS USED TO MAKE CORDAGE, TO
WRAP AROUND TORCHES, AND IN MAKING FRAGILE DOORS AND PARTITIONS. WOOD USED IN BOATS, BOWS, CROSSBOWS,
JOISTS, MASTS, OARS, PADDLES, POSTS, AND SPARS (UPW). TERMITE RESISTANT WOOD IS ALSO USED IN HOME
BUILDING. BURNING WITH A HOT FLAME, IT IS BURNED TO FUEL STEAMBOATS. ROOT WOOD CAN BE USED AS CORKAGE.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (ETHIOPIAN PEPPER) — SOMETIMES LEFT TO STAND IN THE VILLAGES.
CHEMISTRY (ETHIOPIAN PEPPER) — SOME 28 ODOR-ACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN THE FLAVOR ARE LINALOL (FLORAL),
FOLLOWED BY (E)-BETA-OCIMENE (FLOWERY), ALPHA-FARNESENE (SWEET, FLOWERY), BETA-PINENE (TERPENY),
ALPHA-PINENE (PINE NEEDLE-LIKE), MYRTENOL (FLOWERY), AND BETA-PHELLANDRENE (TERPENY). VANILLIN
(VANILLA-LIKE) AND 3-ETHYLPHENOL (SMOKY, PHENOLIC) WERE DETECTED FOR THE FIRST TIME IN THE DRIED FRUIT
(TAIRU ET AL., 1999). HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN ETHIOPIAN PEPPER. FOR
A COMPLETE LISTING OF THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
LIRIODENINE — ANTIBACTERIAL; ANTIDERMATOPHYTIC MIC 3.12 ΜG/ML; ANTITUMOR; CANDIDICIDE; CHANNEL-BLOCKER 0.1 MMOL/L; CYTOTOXIC; FUNGICIDE MIC 100 ΜG/ML; TOPOISOMERASE-II-INHIBITOR IC50
= 0.11 ΜM; VASODILATOR 0.1 MMOL/L.
PIPERINE — SEE ALSO PIPER NIGRUM.
XYLOPIC-ACID — ANTISEPTIC; CALCIUM-ANTAGONIST; DIURETIC; HYPOTENSIVE; VASODILATOR.
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
Z
ZINGIBER OFFICINALE ROSCOE (ZINGIBERACEAE)
GINGER
SYNONYM — AMOMUM ZINGIBER L.
MEDICINAL USES (GINGER) — ALMOST AS IMPORTANT MEDICINALLY AS IT IS CULINARILY. GINGER, AS OUR
MAPS INDICATE, ORIGINATED ON THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT. NEWMARK AND SCHULICK (2000) QUOTE AN INDIAN
PROVERB THAT EVERY GOOD QUALITY IS CONTAINED IN GINGER. CONFUCIUS ALWAYS HAD GINGER WITH HIS MEALS.
THE SURGEON GENERAL FOR CLAUDIUS AND NERO USED GINGER FOR STOMACH PROBLEMS. MILLS AND BONE
(1999) CITE IN VIVO, IN VITRO, AND SOME CLINICAL EVIDENCES RE GINGER’S ANTIALLERGIC, ANTIEMETIC, ANTIHEPATOTOXIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTINAUSEANT, ANTIOXIDANT, ANTIPARASITIC, ANTIPLATELET, ANTIPYRETIC, ANTISEPTIC, ANTITUSSIVE, CARDIOVASCULAR, DIGESTIVE, AND HYPOGLYCEMIC ACTIVITIES (MAB). REPORTEDLY CARMINATIVE, AROMATIC, STIMULANT, STOMACHIC, AND TONIC. CHINESE HAVE DOZENS OF USES FOR THE GINGER.
THE BRUISED LEAVES ARE USED AS A DIGESTIVE STIMULANT AND FOR BRUISE. SPROUTS ARE USED FOR DIARRHEA,
DYSENTERY, MARASMUS, AND WORMS. CHINESE USE THE ROOT FOR ALOPECIA, BLEEDING, CANCER, CHOLERA,
COLDS, CONGESTION, DIARRHEA, DROPSY, DYSMENORRHEA, NAUSEA, RHEUMATISM, SNAKEBITE, STOMACHACHE,
AND TOOTHACHE. CHINESE CONSIDER THE ROOT SIALAGOGUE WHEN CHEWED, STERNUTATORY WHEN INHALED. IT
IS ALSO CONSIDERED ANTIDOTAL TO AROID AND MUSHROOM POISONINGS. COTTON BALLS SOAKED IN GINGER JUICE
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ARE USED IN CHINA FOR FIRST- AND SECOND-DEGREE BURNS; REPORTED CLINICALLY SUCCESSFUL IN ALLEVIATING
PAIN, BLISTERS, AND INFLAMMATION. IN TCM, FRESH GINGER IS “SHENG JIANG,” AN HERB FOR WIND CHILLS;
DRY GINGER IS “GAN JIANG” MORE TO WARM THE INTERIOR (LIBSTER, 2002). GINGER AND GARLIC ARE MIXED
WITH HONEY IN ONE INDIAN COUGH AND ASTHMA REMEDY. JUICE ADMINISTERED IN MALAY PENINSULA AGAINST
COLIC. EXTERNALLY, THE RHIZOME IS AN EFFICIENT RUBEFACIENT AND COUNTERIRRITANT. THE BARK POULTICE, LIKE
THE LEAF CATAPLASM, IS USED FOR FELONS AND INFLAMED TUMORS. THE RHIZOME ALSO SHOWS UP IN FOLK
REMEDIES FOR CANCER. FRESH ROOT CHEWED AND SUCKED TO RELIEVE THIRST. LEAVES POUNDED AND POULTICED
WARM ONTO BRUISES. WEED (2002) RECOMMENDS GINGER TEA WITH HONEY AS A WARMING DRINK FOR UPSET
STOMACH. FRESH ROOT, GRATED AND STEEPED IN BOILING WATER, OR A TABLESPOON OF POWDERED GINGER IN A
CUP OF HOT WATER CAN BE A PLEASURE (WEED, 2002). GINGER TEA CAN EVEN CALM THE HEART. IT MAY,
HOWEVER, INCREASE SWEATING AND FLOODING. GINGER WILL WARM AND HELP RELIEVE CONSTIPATION (WHICH
MAY CONTRIBUTE TO URGE INCONTINENCE). GINGER BATHS, SOAKS, AND COMPRESSES CAN SOOTHE SORE AND
ACHING JOINTS; HOT GINGER COMPRESSES FOR FIBROMYALGIA (WEED, 2002). WEED (2002) SAYS, “GINGER
ROOT TEA WARMS AND NOURISHES THE ENTIRE PELVIS. TRY A CUP/250 ML A DAY, SWEETENED WITH HONEY, FOR
SEVERAL WEEKS. REGULAR MENSES MAY BE RE-ESTABLISHED, OR THE SPOTTING MAY TEMPORARILY INCREASE,
THEN STOP.” AT THE SAME TIME, SHE WARNS THAT HOT FLASHES CAN BE TRIGGERED BY BLACK PEPPER, CAYENNE,
AND GINGER.
GINGER IS SOMETIMES CHEWED AFTER KOLA NUT TO ENHANCE THE LATTER, AS APHRODISIAC. OR IN LATIN
AMERICA, ROOTS MACERATED IN AGUADIENTE, AS A MALE APHRODISIAC, AND, LIKE SOME STEROIDS, USED FOR
ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM. QURESHI ET AL. (1989) CONCLUDED THAT GINGER EXTRACTS SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASE
SPERM MOTILITY AND QUANTITY. GINGER SHARES SEVERAL PHYTOCHEMICALS WITH CARDAMOM, REGARDED BY
SOME ARABS AS APHRODISIAC. THUS, THERE MAY BE SOMETHING BEHIND THE ROOT BOOSTER FORMULA, GINSENG,
GINGER, SASSAFRAS, AND SARSAPARILLA (DUKE, 1985). SLAVE-MASTER PORTUGUESE COLONIALISTS APPARENTLY
INTRODUCED GINGER INTO WEST AFRICA, HOPING TO INCREASE THE SLAVES’ FERTILITY AND FECUNDITY. IN TIBET,
GINGER IS BELIEVED TO STIMULATE THE VITAL ENERGIES OF THE DEBILITATED AND WEAK. CHINESE BELIEVE IT
BALANCES HORMONAL FLOW (SCHULICK, 1994). GINGER CERTAINLY CAN BE MADE PLEASANT TO THE TASTE.
SCHULICK (1994) EVEN RECALLS A FOURTEENTH CENTURY SEX MANUAL, ENTITLED THE PERFUMED GARDEN, WHICH
STATED THAT A MAN WHO PREPARED HIMSELF FOR LOVE WITH GINGER AND HONEY WOULD GIVE SUCH PLEASURE
TO THE WOMAN THAT SHE WOULD WISH THE ACT TO CONTINUE FOREVER. ADDING A LITTLE CARDAMOM, CHILE, AND
GINGER TO MY VEGETARIAN SOUPS MAKES THEM WARMER, IF NOT MORE APHRODISIAC. THE GINGER IS SAID TO
PIQUANTLY PIQUE THE GENITALS OF THOSE WHO CONSUME IT.
IN THE U.S. GINGER IS BEST KNOWN FOR SEA SICKNESS AND MORNING SICKNESS. SINCE THERE IS NO
PHARMACEUTICAL APPROVED FOR MORNING SICKNESS, MY FRIEND, DR. DON BROWN, RECOMMENDS 250 MG
OF GINGER ROOT FOUR TIMES PER DAY, SAYING IT APPEARS TO BE EFFECTIVE FOR REDUCING NAUSEA AND THE
INCIDENCE OF VOMITING. RESULTS COULD TAKE UP TO 48 HR. NO ADVERSE EFFECTS WERE NOTED ON PREGNANCY
OUTCOME (BROWN, 2001). EV.EXT 33, A PATENTED GINGER EXTRACT, WAS EXAMINED IN WISTAR SPF RATS
BY ORAL GAVAGE AT 100, 333, AND 1000 MG/KG, TO PREGNANT FEMALE RATS FROM DAYS 6–15 OF GESTATION.
EV.EXT 33 WAS WELL TOLERATED. NO DEATHS OR TREATMENT-RELATED ADVERSE EFFECTS WERE OBSERVED.
WEIGHT GAIN AND FOOD CONSUMPTION WERE SIMILAR IN ALL GROUPS DURING GESTATION. REPRODUCTIVE
PERFORMANCE WAS NOT AFFECTED BY TREATMENT WITH EV.EXT 33. NO EMBRYOTOXIC OR TERATOGENIC EFFECTS
WERE OBSERVED. EV.EXT 33, WHEN ADMINISTERED TO PREGNANT RATS DURING THE PERIOD OF ORGANOGENESIS,
CAUSED NEITHER MATERNAL NOR DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY AT DAILY DOSES OF UP TO 1000 MG/KG BODY WEIGHT
(X11137381). VUTYAVANICH ET AL. (2001), IN A RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE-MASKED, PLACEBO-CONTROLLED TRIAL,
OF 32 WOMEN (TAKING 250 MG CAPSULES, 4×/DAY), CONCLUDED THAT GINGER IS EFFECTIVE AT RELIEVING
SEVERITY OF NAUSEA AND VOMITING IN PREGNANCY. DR. DIAMOND, M.D. (2001) DOES NOT CONTRAINDICATE
GINGER IN PREGNANCY, AND NEITHER DO I.
AND RECENTLY, THERE IS EVIDENCE TO SUGGEST THAT POWDERED GINGER IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN DRAMAMINE FOR MOTION SICKNESS. DOUBLE-BLIND CROSSOVER STUDIES SHOWED THAT 1 G/DAY/4 DAYS POWDERED
GINGER DIMINISHED OR ELIMINATED SYMPTOMS OF HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM. I CONCLUDED THAT A LITER OF
GINGER ALE, IF IT CONTAINED THE 0.525% GINGER PERMITTED IN COOKIES, WOULD CONTAIN FIVE TIMES THE
DOSE REQUIRED TO PREVENT MOTION SICKNESS BETTER THAN DRAMAMINE. TWO HUNDRED GRAMS OF GINGER
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SNAPS CONTAINING THAT 5250 PPM GINGER WOULD PRESUMABLY BE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE. AGAIN, ILLUSTRATING
THE CONTROVERSY IN THE FOOD FARMACY LITERATURE. YAMAHARA ET AL. (1992) CONCLUDED THAT GINGER EXTRACTS
(75 MG/KG), 6-SHOGOAL (2.5 MG/KG), AND 6-, 8- OR 10-GINGEROL (5 MG/KG) ENHANCED GASTROINTESTINAL
MOTILITY OF A CHARCOAL MEAL. THE EFFECTS WERE SIMILAR TO OR SLIGHTLY WEAKER THAN THOSE OF METOCLOPRAMIDE AND DONPERIDONE. SYNERGIES COULD BE WORKING HERE, TOO. GINGER ROOT SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED
THE INCIDENCE OF POSTOPERATIVE EMETIC SEQUELAE COMPARED TO PLACEBO, HAVING THE “SAME EFFECT AS
METOCLOPRAMIDE.” STILL, THERE IS CONTROVERSY OVER WHETHER ANY ANTIEMETIC SHOULD BE ADMINISTERED
PROPHYLACTICALLY, EVEN THOUGH THE OVERALL INCIDENCE OF THE NAUSEA AND VOMITING IS CA. 30%. ADDITIONALLY, GINGER HAS ANTICATHARTIC ACTIVITY. [6]-SHOGOAL, [6]-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE, [8]- AND [10]-GINGEROL WERE FOUND TO HAVE AN ANTICATHARTIC ACTION. [6]-SHOGAOL WAS MORE POTENT THAN [6]-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE, [8]- AND [10]-GINGEROL (X2074539).
OB-200G, A POLYHERBAL PREPARATION CONTAINING AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF GARCINIA CAMBOGIA, GYMNEMA SYLVESTRE, PIPER LONGUM, ZINGIBER OFFICINALE, AND RESIN FROM COMMIPHORA MUKUL, LIKE EACH
COMPONENT HERB, HAS THERMOGENIC PROPERTIES. OB-200G EXERTS ANTIOBESITY ACTIVITIES IN ANIMAL
MODELS OF OBESITY. NEW STUDIES SUGGEST THE ROLE OF SEROTONIN IN MEDIATION OF SATIETY BY OB-200G;
HENCE ITS ANTIOBESITY EFFECT (KAUR AND KULKARNI, 2001). ELDERSHAW ET AL. (1992) SHOWED THAT SOME
GINGEROLS AND SHOGAOLS ARE THERMOGENIC.
ACCORDING TO SAMBAIAH AND SRINIVASAN (1989), GINGER STIMULATED LIVER MICROSOMAL CYTOCHROME
P450 DEPENDENT ARYL HYDROXYLASE. INVESTIGATING ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY, AHMED ET AL. (2000) FOUND THAT
GINGER SIGNIFICANTLY LOWERED LIPID PEROXIDATION BY MAINTAINING THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ANTIOXIDANT
ENZYMES SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE, CATALASE, AND GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE IN RATS. THE AUTHORS CONCLUDED
THAT GINGER IS AS EFFECTIVE AS ASCORBIC ACID AS AN ANTIOXIDANT.
NEWMARK AND SCHULICK (2000) COMMENT THAT GINGER IS THE OPPOSITE OF CELEBREX. CELEBREX HAS
ONE MOLECULE, DESIGNED TO DO ONE THING. GINGER HAS CLOSE TO 500 IDENTIFIED CONSTITUENTS, AND MANY
MORE THAN THAT STILL UNIDENTIFIED (JAD). GINGER HAS SEVERAL CONSTITUENTS THAT INHIBIT COX-2 AND THAT
INHIBIT THE 5-LIPOXYGENASE METABOLISM OF ARACHIDONIC ACID, THUS DEPRIVING PROSTATE CANCER CELLS OF
THEIR FUEL FOR GROWTH. GINGER HAS AT LEAST FOUR PROSTAGLANDIN-INHIBITORS THAT ARE STRONGER THAN
INDOMETHACIN, THE LATTER BEING STRUCTURALLY TO MELATONIN. SEVENTEEN PUNGENT OLEORESIN PRINCIPALS OF
GINGER EXHIBITED A CONCENTRATION AND STRUCTURE DEPENDENT INHIBITION OF COX-2 (IC50 = 1–25 ΜM).
[8]-PARADOL AND [8]-SHOGAOL AND TWO SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES, 3-HYDROXY-1-(4-HYDROXY-3-METHOXYPHENYL)DECANE AND 5-HYDROXY-1-(4-HYDROXY-3-METHOXYPHENYL)DODECANE, SHOWED STRONGEST INHIBITORY
EFFECTS ON COX-2. GINGER METABOLITES, [6]- AND [8]-SERIES OF GINGEROL, SHOGAOL, AND PARADOL STRONGLY
INHIBIT COX-2 IN DISRUPTED RAT BASOPHILIC LEUKEMIA-1 CELLS. [6]-GINGEROL REPORTED TO REDUCE PHORBOL
ESTER INDUCED INFLAMMATION IN MICE WHEN APPLIED TOPICALLY. SUCH POTENT COX-2 INHIBITION SUPPORTS
THE USE OF GINGER AS AN INFLAMMATORY, PERHAPS COMPETITIVE WITH THE SYNTHETIC COX-2-INHIBITORS
(TJENDRAPUTRA ET AL., 2001).
AND GINGER IS A NOTEWORTHY SOURCE OF NATURAL MELATONIN, A POTENT ANTIOXIDANT — MORE POTENT
THAN GLUTATHIONE IN SCAVENGING THE HYDROXYL RADICAL AND MORE POTENT THAN VITAMIN E IN SCAVENGING
THE PEROXYL RADICAL. IT STIMULATES THE MAIN ANTIOXIDANT ENZYME OF THE BRAIN, GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE.
MELATONIN IS READILY DIFFUSED INTO ALL TISSUES OF THE BODY, INCLUDING INTRACELLULAR MEMBRANES, DUE
TO ITS LIPOPHILIC STRUCTURE. IT PROTECTS DNA AGAINST FREE RADICAL DAMAGE (BOIK, 1995). MELATONIN
ALSO INHIBITED HUMAN M-6 MELANOMA CELLS IN VITRO. THE MECHANISM BY WHICH MELATONIN AFFECTS
MELANOMA CELLS IS UNCERTAIN; IT MAY BE DUE TO AN ANTIESTROGEN MECHANISM. STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT
EXTREMELY LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS, LIKE THOSE IN HOUSEHOLD ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT, BLOCK
THE ABILITY OF MELATONIN TO INHIBIT THE PROLIFERATION OF BREAST CANCER CELLS IN VITRO (BOIK, 1995).
MELATONIN MAY INHIBIT CANCER BY AUGMENTING INTERLEUKIN-2’S ANTICANCER EFFECTS. IN 90 PATIENTS WITH
ADVANCED SOLID NEOPLASMS, LOW DOSE IL-2 (3 MILLION IU) AND 40 MG/DAY MELATONIN SIGNIFICANTLY
DECREASED THE PROLIFERATION OF NEOPLASTIC CELLS AS COMPARED TO IL-2 ALONE (BOIK, 1995). MORE
RECENTLY, BOIK (2001) NOTES THAT MELATONIN INHIBITS PROLIFERATION OF BREAST CANCER AND OTHER CELL LINES
IN VITRO AT LOW CONCENTRATIONS (0.1–1 NM; HIGHER AND LOWER LEVELS WERE INEFFICACIOUS) (41 IN VITRO
STUDIES AND 13 ANIMAL STUDIES). BOIK SUGGESTS A TENTATIVE ANTICANCER DOSE OF 3–20 MG/DAY. BECAUSE
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
THE TARGET DOSE IS ACHIEVABLE (BUT NOT WITH FOOD FARMACY, JAD), SYNERGISTIC INTERACTIONS MAY NOT BE
REQUIRED FOR MELATONIN TO PRODUCE AN ANTICANCER EFFECT IN HUMANS. NEVERTHELESS, MELATONIN MAY
GREATLY BENEFIT FROM SYNERGISM, AND IT MAKES SENSE TO CONTINUE TESTING IT IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER
COMPOUNDS (BOIK, 2001).
THOUGH GINGER MAY BE HOT TO THE TASTE, IT EXERTS GREAT ANTIULCER POTENTIAL — METHINKS EVEN
BETTER IN COMBINATION WITH LICORICE. SCHULICK (1994) NOTES THAT GINGER CAN RELIEVE INFLAMMATION
WHILE SIMULTANEOUSLY PROTECTING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FROM ULCERS. WHEN LAB ANIMALS ARE EXPOSED
TO SEVERE STRESS, GINGER EXTRACT, EVEN AT HIGH DOSES, CAN INHIBIT ULCERS BY AS MUCH AS 97.5%. FOR
THE 25 MILLION AMERICAN MALES AND 12 MILLION FEMALES SUFFERING DUODENAL AND/OR GASTRIC ULCERS,
DAILY GINGER IS AN ATTRACTIVE ALTERNATIVE TO CIMETIDINE, FAMOTIDINE, AND RANITIDINE, ACCOUNTING FOR
SALES OF $2.8 BILLION A YEAR. U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT (AS EARLY AS 21 FEB. 1994) NOTED THAT THE
H2-RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS ARE AMONG THOSE WITH THE MOST SIDE EFFECTS AND THE HIGHEST PRICES. UPWARDS
OF 90% OF USERS SUFFER HIGH RECURRENCE RATES. COST OF CONSUMPTION OVER 15 YEARS MAY EXCEED
$10,000 (SCHULICK, 1994). FURANOGERMENONE ALSO PREVENTS GASTRIC ULCERS IN RATS (ORAL DOSES OF 500
MG/KG). GINGER (WATER DECOCTION), LONG PEPPER (WATER DECOCTION), AND FERULA SPECIES (COLLOIDAL
SOLUTION) SHOWED ANTIULCER IN RATS AT ORAL DOSES OF 50 MG/KG, 60 MIN PRIOR TO EXPERIMENT, SIGNIFICANT
PROTECTION AGAINST GASTRIC ULCERS INDUCED BY 2-HR COLD RESTRAINT STRESS, ASPIRIN (200 MG/KG, 4 HR) AND
4-HR PYLORUS LIGATION. THE ANTIULCEROGENIC EFFECT SEEMED DUE TO AUGMENTATION OF MUCIN SECRETION
AND DECREASED CELL SHEDDING RATHER THAN OFFENSIVE ACID AND PEPSIN SECRETION WHICH, HOWEVER, WERE
ALSO FOUND TO BE INCREASED. YAMAHARA ET AL. (1992) NOTE THAT BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE, BETA-BISABOLENE, AR-CURCUMENE, AND 6-SHOGAOL ALSO HAVE ANTIULCER ACTIVITIES. IN FACT, GINGER CAN CONTAIN MORE
THAN A DOZEN EACH OF ANTIINFLAMMATORY, ANTIULCER, AND SEDATIVE COMPOUNDS (USDA DATABASE), MAKING
THE GINGER, LIKE THE LICORICE, VERY PROMISING WITH ULCERS.
HIKINO ET AL. (1985) REPORTED ANTIHEPATOTOXIC ACTIONS OF GINGEROLS, SHOGAOLS, AND DIARYLHEPTANOIDS. THE [7]- AND [8]-GINGEROLS AND SHOGAOLS EXHIBITED GREATER ANTIHEPATOTOXIC ACTIVITIES. TURMERIC HAS MORE NOTORIETY AS AN ANTIHEPATOTOXIC, BUT I CAN SEE REASON FOR MIXING AND MATCHING OUR
GINGERS AND TURMERICS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THIS TROPICAL SPICE FAMILY.
GOTO ET AL. (1990) SHOWED THAT 6-SHOGOAL AND 6-GINGEROL SYNERGISTICALLY KILLED LARVAE, PERHAPS
AGAIN VINDICATING THE FOLK USAGE OF GINGER AS AN ANTIDOTE FOR SEAFOOD POISONING. ADEWUNMI ET AL.
DEMONSTRATED THAT GINGEROL AND SHOGOAL HAVE POTENT MOLLUSCICIDAL ACTIVITY AGAINST BIOPHALARIA
GLABRATA. AT 5 PPM, GINGEROL COMPLETELY NULLIFIED THE INFECTIVITY OF SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI MIRACIDIA
AND CERCARIAE IN B. GLABRATA AND MICE RESPECTIVELY, SUGGESTING THAT THE MOLLUSCICIDE IS CAPABLE OF
INTERRUPTING SCHISTOSOME TRANSMISSION AT CONCENTRATIONS LOWER THAN THE MOLLUSCICIDAL CONCENTRATION.
ACCORDING TO MURAKAMI (1994), 6-GINGESULFONIC ACID HAS MORE POTENT ANTIBIOTIC ACTIVITY THAN 6-
GINGEROL AND 6-SHOGAOL. SCHULICK (1994) NOTES THAT GINGER IS ACTIVE AGAINST GRAM(–) AND GRAM(+)
BACTERIA, NAMING ESCHERICHIA COLI, PROTEUS VULHARIS, SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM, STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS, AND STREPTOCOCCUS VIRIDANS (BUT NO STUDIES ON HELICOBACTER), WHILE STILL SERVING AS A PROBIOTIC,
STIMULATING THE GROWTH OF POTENTIALLY USEFUL LACTOBACILLUS. IN THIS LATTER REGARD, GINGER WAS BETTER
THAN CINNAMON, GARLIC, AND PEPPER. PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES LIKE ZINGIBAIN CAN ENHANCE SYNTHETIC
ANTIBIOTIC BACTERICIDES AS MUCH AS 50% (SCHULICK, 1994). WHEN THE CDC AND FDA CONSTANTLY TELL
US THAT HERBS CAN’T HELP AGAINST GERM WARFARE, THEY FORGET THEIR OWN WORDS, THAT PEOPLE WHO HAVE
COMPROMISED IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE INFECTED BY GERMS. GINGER CAN KILL GRAM(+)
BACTERIA, IF NOT ANTHRAX, AND BOOST THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AT THE SAME TIME. “GINGER NOT ONLY MAINTAINS
IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTIONING, BUT STUDIES IN MONTREAL AND IN TOKYO IN 1955 AND 1979 CONCLUDED
THAT THE SPICE MAY ACTUALLY ENHANCE IMMUNITY. GINGER APPARENTLY INDUCED NEUTROPHILS WHICH CAN
STIMULATE HOST RESISTANCE TO VARIOUS DISEASES” (SCHULICK, 1994).
SOME GINGER COMPOUNDS EXHIBITED MODERATE GROWTH REGULATORY AND ANTIFEEDANT ACTIVITY AGAINST
SPILOSOMA OBLIQUA AND SIGNIFICANT ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY AGAINST RHIZOCTONIA SOLANI. [6]-DEHYDROSHOGAOL EXHIBITED MAXIMUM GROWTH REGULATORY ACTIVITY (EC50 = 3.55 MG/ML); DEHYDROZINGERONE
IMPARTED MAXIMUM ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY (EC50 = 86.5 MG/L) (AGARWAL ET AL. 2001). THE ANTIFUNGAL
DIARYLHEPTENONES, GINGERENONES A, B, C AND ISOGINGERENONE B, MIGHT POSSIBLY BE SYNERGISTIC, IN
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
GINGER AND MAN. GINGERENONE A SHOWED STRONG ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY TO PYRICULARIA ORYZAE, AND
MODERATE ANTICOCCIDIUM ACTIVITY AGAINST EIMERIA TENELLA.
IN RATS, ORAL DOSES OF 50–100 MG/KG ETHANOLIC EXTRACT HAD ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY COMPARABLE
TO ASPIRIN, BUT THE ANALGESIC ACTIVITY WAS ONLY 1
/10TH THAT OF ASPIRIN. SHOGOAL AND GINGEROL ARE ANALGESIC
COMPONENTS. IN ONE CLINICAL TRIAL, EXTRACT OF GINGER AND GREATER GALANGAL EXTRACT SIGNIFICANTLY (BUT
MODESTLY) REDUCED SYMPTOMS OF OESTOARTHRITIS OF THE KNEE. THERE WAS A GOOD SAFETY PROFILE, WITH
SOME MILD GI ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HERBAL GROUP COMPARED TO CONTROLS (ALTMAN AND MARCUSSEN,
2001). THE EXTRACT WAS ACTIVE AGAINST GRAM(–) AND GRAM(+) BACTERIA.
REPORTEDLY, 500–600 MG POWDERED GINGER ROOT CAN PREVENT MIGRAINE, BASED ON A SINGLE CASE
HISTORY. AND MERELY CHEWING WITHOUT SWALLOWING, 1 G GINGER CAN RAISE SYSTOLIC PRESSURE 11 MM
HG, DIASTOLIC, 14 (MAB). PARALLELING SIMILAR REPORTS FROM PEPPER; HOLDING 100 MG PEPPER IN THE
MOUTH TRANSIENT INCREASES SYSTOLIC PRESSURE 13 MM HG C, DIASTOLIC 18 (LIN, 1994).
UNDER THE ABLE DIRECTION OF LIONEL ROBINEAU, M.D., TRAMIL SUGGESTS THAT SHOGOAL IS INTENSIVELY ANTITUSSIVE, COMPARED TO DIHYDROCODEINE. ALL BUT “PRESCRIBING” GINGER FOR COLDS, COUGH, FLU,
STOMACHACHE, AND VOMITING, TRAMIL CLASSIFIES GINGER IN THEIR “REC” CATEGORY. HERE IS HOW
TRAMIL EXPLAINS THEIR REC CATEGORY:
“WE RECOMMEND CERTAIN USAGE OF PLANTS (OR PARTS) VERY FREQUENTLY USED IN CASES OF WELL DEFINED AILMENTS
BY THE POPULATION…AND FOR WHICH THE SAME INDICATIONS FOR USE ARE GIVEN IN…THE CARIBBEAN, OR IN OTHER
TROPICAL REGIONS, AND WHICH HAVE BEEN THE OBJECT OF VALIDATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL PHARMACOLOGICAL AND/OR
TOXICOLOGICAL WORK.
CATEGORY C ALSO INCLUDES PLANTS THAT ARE WELL KNOWN AS INNOCUOUS, WHOSE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY FOR THE
CITED INDICATION IS STILL TO BE PROVEN, BUT THAT CAN BE RECOMMENDED AS A PLACEBO.
IN THIS LAST CATEGORY, THERE ARE ALSO NEW INDICATIONS OF ‘TRAMIL’ PLANTS, WHOSE USE THE PARTICIPANTS IN
THE TRAMIL 3 WORKSHOP HAD RECOMMENDED AND ENCOURAGED IN VIEW OF THE AVAILABLE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION FOR THOSE SPECIES.”
I SUPPOSE SCIENCE HAS MARCHED ON SINCE THE DAYS OF WATT’S “TRIKATU” FOR DERMATOSES, JUST BEFORE
A.D. 1900. NOW THERE’S A PATENTED NEW TRICK OR TWO. U.S. PATENT NO. 6,063,381 DESCRIBES ANTIINFECTIVE
AGENTS FROM BLACK PEPPER, GINGER, AND OTHER SPICES CONTAINING THE VANILLYL AND PIPERIDINE RING
STRUCTURE. THESE COMPOUNDS ARE USEFUL WITH MYCOSES, TISSUE INJURIES, AND ABNORMAL PROLIFERATION
OF KERATIN. VARIOUS TOPICAL APPLICATIONS PROVIDE “OUTSTANDING RESULTS” IN ATHLETE’S FOOT, CANDIDA, JOCK
ITCH, RINGWORM, AND FAVUS. CAVEAT EMPTOR (DEAN, 2000).
INDICATIONS (GINGER) — ADENOSIS (F; KAB); AGING (F; WHO); ALCOHOLISM (1; MAB); ALLERGY (1;
FAY; FNF; MAB); ALOPECIA (F; DAA; DAD; FAY; WHO); ALZHEIMER’S (1; COX; FNF); ANEMIA
(F; DAA); ANOREXIA (2; JFM; KAB; PHR; WHO); ANXIETY (1; MAB); ARTHROSIS (1; COX; MAB;
SKY); ASCITES (F; KAB); ASTHMA (F; FAY; JFM; MAD); ATHEROSCLEROSIS (F; SKY); BACKACHE (1;
WHO); BACTERIA (1; APA; FNF; MAB; TRA); BITE (F; DAA; KAB); BLEEDING (F; DAA); BLISTER
(1; DAD; DAA; FAY); BOIL (F; KAB); BORBORYGMUS (F; BGB); BRONCHOSIS (1; AAB; BGB; FAY;
FNF); BRUISE (F; DAA; DAD); BURN (1; APA; DAD; FAY; MAB); CANCER (1; MAB); CANDIDA (1;
TRA); CARDIOPATHY (1; APA; FAY); CATARACT (F; WHO); CATARRH (2; DAD; TRA); CHEMOTHERAPY
(1; MAB; SKY); CHEST COLD (1; AAB); CHILDBIRTH (F; AAB); CHOLERA (F; DAA; DAD); COLD (2;
AKT; APA; BGB; FNF; MAD; TRA; WHO); COLIC (1; PNC; BGB; SUW; WHO); CONGESTION (1;
DAA; DAD; FNF; RIN); CONVULSION (1; PNC); CORNEOSIS (F; DAA); COUGH (1; APA; BGB; FAY;
FNF; PNC); CRAMP (1; APA; BGB; KOM; MAB; PIP; PNC; TRA; WAM); DANDRUFF (F; APA);
DEPRESSION (1; APA; DAA; MAB; WOI); DIABETES (1; DAA); DIARRHEA (2; AAB; BGB; DAA;
TRA; WHO); DIZZINESS (2; JAD); DROPSY (F; DAA; DAD); DYSMENORRHEA (1; AAB; APA; DAA;
JFM; MAB); DYSPEPSIA (2; FAY; FNF; KOM; PIP; MAD; SUW; TRA; WAM); DYSPNEA (F; BGB;
PH2); EARACHE (F; APA); EDEMA (1; MAB); ELEPHANTIASIS (F; KAB); ENTEROSIS (1; APA; FAY; MAD;
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
PNC); EPIGASTROSIS (F; BGB; MAD); EPISTAXIS (F; FAY); ESCHERICHIA (1; HH3); FEVER (2; APA;
CAN; FAY; FNF; MAB; MAD; TRA); FLU (2; APA; BGB; FNF; TRA; VVG; WHO); FUNGUS (1;
DAD; MAB; TRA); GAS (1; AAB; APA; MAB; MAD; PED; PHR; PH2; PNC; SUW; VVG);
GASTROSIS (2; APA; FAY; MAD; PHR; TRA); HEADACHE (1; APA; FAY; KAP; MAB; WAM); HEAD
COLD (F; JFM; RIN); HEMORRHOID (F; KAB; MAD; WHO); HEPATOSIS (1; APA; MAD); HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE (1; APA; PNC); HIGH CHOLESTEROL (1; MAB; PED; PNC); HOARSENESS (F; JFM); HYPEREMESIS (2; AKT); IMMUNODEPRESSION (1; FNF; PH2); IMPOTENCE (1; APA; MAB); INFECTION (1; DAD;
FNF; MAB; TRA); INFERTILITY (F; MAD); INFLAMMATION (2; FAY; FNF; MAB; TRA; SKY; WAM;
WHO); INSOMNIA (F; WHO); KAWASAKI DISEASE (1; MAB); LOW BLOOD PRESSURE (1; MAB); LUMBAGO
(1; PNC); MALARIA (F; JFM; MAD); MARASMUS (F; DAA; DAD); MIGRAINE (1; APA; FAY; MAB;
PH2; SKY; WHO); MORNING SICKNESS (2; FNF; KOM; MAB; PIP; WHO); MOTION SICKNESS (2;
FNF; KOM; MAB; PIP; WHO); MYCOSIS (1; DAD; HH3; MAB; TRA); MYOSIS (1; AAB; AKT;
WAM; WHO); NAUSEA (2; BGB; DAA; FAY; FNF; TRA; WAM; WHO); NEPHROSIS (F; APA; DAA);
NERVOUSNESS (1; FNF); NEURALGIA (1; COX; FNF); NEURASTHENIA (F; MAD); OBESITY (1; PH2);
OPACITY (F; JFM); OPHTHALMIA (F; JFM); OSTEOARTHROSIS (1; AKT; COX); PAIN (1; AKT; FAY; FNF;
JBU; PED; PNC; TRA; WAM; WHO); PALPITATION (F; FAY); PARASITE (1; MAB; TRA); PHARYNGOSIS
(1; JFM; PH2; TRA); POSTOPERATIVE NAUSEA (2; WHO); PYREXIA (F; PNC); RAYNAUD’S (F; BGB);
RHEUMATISM (1; FAY; MAB; MAD; PNC; SKY; WHO); SALMONELLA (1; HH3; TRA); SCHISTOSOMIASIS (1; DAD; HH3; TRA); SEASICKNESS (2; FNF; WHO); SNAKEBITE (F; DAA; DAD); SORE THROAT
(1; APA); SPLENOSIS (F; FAY); STAPHYLOCOCCUS (1; HH3; TRA); STOMACHACHE (1; AAB; AKT; DAA;
DAD; FNF); STOMATOSIS (F; MAD); STREPTOCOCCUS (1; HH3); STROKE (1; APA); SWELLING (1; FAY;
HH3; MAB; WHO); THIRST (F; DAD); THROMBOCYTOSIS (1; MAB); TOOTHACHE (F; DAD; MAD; KAP;
WHO); TRICHOMONIASIS (1; DAA); ULCER (1; APA; FAY; FNF; MAB; VVG); VAGINOSIS (1; DAA);
VERTIGO (1; MAB); VIRUS (1; APA; FNF; MAB; TRA; WAM); VITILIGO (F; FAY); VOMITING (3; KOM;
PIP; WHO); WORM (F; DAA; DAD); YEAST (1; TRA).
GINGER FOR COLD/FLU:
• ANALGESIC: 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENICACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GINGEROL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; SHOGAOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIALLERGIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; CITRAL; FERULIC-ACID; GINGEROL;
KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; QUERCETIN; SHOGAOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIBACTERIAL: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE;
BETA-IONONE; BETA-THUJONE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; CURCUMIN; DELTA-CADINENE; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIAL;
GERANIOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN; NERAL; NEROL; NEROLIDOL; PCOUMARIC-ACID; P-CYMENE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; PATCHOULI-ALCOHOL; PERILLALDEHYDE;
QUERCETIN; TERPINEN-4-OL; VANILLIC-ACID
• ANTIBRONCHITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BORNEOL; CURCUMIN
• ANTIFLU: ALPHA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; LIMONENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIHISTAMINIC: 6-SHOGAOL; 8-GINGEROL; 8-SHOGAOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRAL;
GINGEROL; KAEMPFEROL; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; SHOGAOL
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: 10-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE; 10-GINGERDIONE; 6-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE; 6-GINGERDIONE; ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GINGEROL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; SHOGAOL; VANILLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• ANTIOXIDANT: 6-GINGERDIOL; 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CAPSAICIN;
CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; DELPHINIDIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GAMMA-TERPINENE; GINGEROL; ISOEUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN; ZINGERONE
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• ANTIPHARYNGITIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; QUERCETIN
• ANTIPYRETIC: 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL; EUGENOL; GINGEROL; SALICYLATES; SHOGAOL
• ANTIRHINOVIRAL: AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE; ZINGIBERENE
• ANTISEPTIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; AROMADENDRENE; BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-PINENE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL; EUGENOL;
FURFURAL; GERANIOL; GINGEROL; HEXANOL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; NEROL;
OXALIC-ACID; PARADOL; SHOGAOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTISTRESS: GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID
• ANTITUSSIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; TERPINEN-4-OL
• ANTIVIRAL: ALPHA-PINENE; AR-CURCUMENE; BETA-BISABOLENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID;
CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; CYANIN; FERULIC-ACID; GERANIAL; KAEMPFEROL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MYRICETIN; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; VANILLIN
• BRONCHORELAXANT: CITRAL; LINALOOL
• COX-2-INHIBITOR: CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; QUERCETIN; 10-GINGEROL; 8-
PARADOL; 6-SHOGAOL; XANTHORIZOL
• CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR: 6-GINGEROL; CAPSAICIN; CURCUMIN; GINGEROL; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; QUERCETIN; SHOGAOL; ZINGERONE
• DECONGESTANT: CAMPHOR
• EXPECTORANT: 1,8-CINEOLE; ACETIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PHELLANDRENE; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR; CITRAL; GERANIOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL
• IMMUNOSTIMULANT: ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; BENZALDEHYDE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CURCUMIN; FERULIC-ACID; MELATONIN
• INTERFERONOGENIC: CHLOROGENIC-ACID
• PHAGOCYTOTIC: FERULIC-ACID
GINGER FOR DYSPEPSIA:
• ANALGESIC: 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENICACID; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GINGEROL; MYRCENE; P-CYMENE; QUERCETIN; SHOGAOL
• ANESTHETIC: 1,8-CINEOLE; BENZALDEHYDE; CAMPHOR; CAPSAICIN; EUGENOL; LINALOOL; MYRCENE
• ANTIEMETIC: 6-GINGEROL; CAMPHOR; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• ANTIGASTRIC: MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN
• ANTIINFLAMMATORY: 10-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE; 10-GINGERDIONE; 6-DEHYDROGINGERDIONE; 6-GINGERDIONE; ALPHA-CURCUMENE; ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID; ALPHA-PINENE; BETA-PINENE; BORNEOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAPSAICIN; CARYOPHYLLENE; CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID;
GINGEROL; KAEMPFEROL; MYRICETIN; QUERCETIN; SALICYLATES; SHOGAOL; VANILLIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• ANTIOXIDANT: 6-GINGERDIOL; 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; CAFFEIC-ACID; CAMPHENE; CAPSAICIN;
CHLOROGENIC-ACID; CURCUMIN; DELPHINIDIN; EUGENOL; FERULIC-ACID; GAMMA-TERPINENE; GINGEROL; ISOEUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; MELATONIN; MYRCENE; MYRICETIN; P-COUMARIC-ACID; PHYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; QUERCETIN; VANILLIC-ACID; VANILLIN; ZINGERONE
• ANTIPEPTIC: BENZALDEHYDE; BETA-EUDESMOL
• ANTISTRESS: GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID
• ANTIULCER: 6-GINGEROL; 6-GINGESULFONIC-ACID; 6-SHOGAOL; ALPHA-ZINGIBERENE; AR-CURCUMENE;
BETA-BISABOLENE; BETA-EUDESMOL; BETA-SESQUIPHELLANDRENE; CAPSAICIN; CHLOROGENIC-ACID;
CURCUMIN; EUGENOL; KAEMPFEROL; ZINGIBERENE; ZINGIBERONE
• ANTIULCEROGENIC: CAFFEIC-ACID
• ANXIOLYTIC: GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID
• CARMINATIVE: CAMPHOR; ETHYL-ACETATE; EUGENOL; ZINGIBERENE
• DIGESTIVE: CAPSAICIN
• GASTROSTIMULANT: 6-SHOGAOL; GALANOLACTONE; GINGEROL; SHOGAOL
• PROTEOLYTIC: ZINGIBAIN
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
• SECRETAGOGUE: 1,8-CINEOLE; P-HYDROXY-BENZOIC-ACID; ZINGERONE
• SEDATIVE: 1,8-CINEOLE; 6-GINGEROL; 6-SHOGAOL; ALPHA-PINENE; ALPHA-TERPINEOL; BENZALDEHYDE; BORNEOL; BORNYL-ACETATE; CAFFEIC-ACID; CARYOPHYLLENE; CITRAL; CITRONELLAL; CITRONELLOL;
EUGENOL; FARNESOL; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID; GERANIOL; GERANYL-ACETATE; GINGEROL;
ISOBORNEOL; ISOEUGENOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; NEROL; P-CYMENE; PERILLALDEHYDE; SHOGAOL
• SIALAGOGUE: CAPSAICIN
• TRANQUILIZER: ALPHA-PINENE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID
OTHER USES (GINGER) — WITH ITS AGREEABLE AROMA AND PUNGENT TASTE, IT IS PREPARED FROM WHOLE OR
PARTIALLY PEELED RHIZOMES, CALLED “HANDS.” GINGER IS EXTENSIVELY USED AS CONDIMENT, IN BAKED GOODS,
BEVERAGES, CAKES, CANDIES, CHUTNEYS, CURRIES, GINGER ALE, GINGER BEER, MINCEMEAT, PASTRIES, PICKLES,
AND PRESERVES. GINGER IS MARKETED WHOLE, CRACKED, GROUND, POWDERED, AND AS A FLAVORING. IT IS SAID
TO BE USED AS A VEGETABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR RENNET. YOUNG RHIZOMES, CALLED GREEN GINGER, STEM GINGER,
OR YOUNG GINGER, ARE PEELED AND EATEN RAW IN SALADS, PICKLED, OR COOKED IN SYRUP AND MADE INTO
SWEETMEATS. LIKE GARLIC, GINGER GETS MILDER IF COOKED, BITTER IF BURNED. TO MAKE “PINK GINGER,” THE
JAPANESE GARNISH, TAKE VERY YOUNG GINGER ROOTS, SCRAPE OFF THE SKIN, SATURATE WITH LEMON JUICE (WHICH
TURNS IT PICK), AND SEASON WITH SALT (RIN). PICKLED GINGER, KNOWN AS “AMAZU-SHÔGA” OR “GARI,” IS
FREQUENTLY CONSUMED WITH SUSHI, ETC. PICKLED AND DYED RED, THEY ARE KNOWN AS “HAJIKAMI-SHÔGA.”
CANDIED GINGER, PRESERVED IN HONEY, SUGAR, OR SYRUP, IS A REAL TREAT. IN AUSTRALIA, THE YOUNG RHIZOMES
ARE PREFERRED FOR MAKING CRYSTALLIZED GINGER. THE JUICE OF THE RHIZOMES IS NICE IN GINGER ALE, GINGER
BEER, WINE, BRANDY, AND HERBAL TEAS. YOUNG, SPICY SHOOTS ARE EATEN AS A POTHERB OR PURÉED AND USED
IN SAUCES AND DIPS. YOUNG INFLORESCENCES ARE EATEN RAW IN KHAAO YAM. THE LEAVES ARE USED TO WRAP
FOOD FOR GRILLING (FAC). GINGER CONTAINS A PROTEOLYTIC ENZYME WHICH, LIKE FICIN, BROMELAIN, AND
PAPAIN, CAN BE USED FOR TENDERIZING MEATS. THE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYME IS PRESENT AT LEVELS OF 2.26% OF
THE FRESH RHIZOME, SUCH THAT 50 KG GINGER CAN YIELD 1 KG OF THE ENZYME; BY CONTRAST, IT TAKES 8000
KG PAPAYA (BUT REMEMBER, IT’S MOSTLY WATER) TO PRODUCE 1 KG PAPAIN, PAPAYA’S DIGESTIVE ENZYME.
ALL THESE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES, LIKE THE HYDROXY FRUIT ACIDS THEY OFTEN ACCOMPANY, HAVE COSMETIC
APPLICATIONS AS WELL. THE EO, CALLED “OIL OF GINGER,” IS USED IN FOOD FLAVORING, BEVERAGES, AND
PERFUMES, ESPECIALLY MEN’S TOILET LOTIONS (DAD, RIN, WOI). AND BOWN (2001) NOTES THAT SHOGAOLS,
BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS OF GINGEROL, PRODUCED AS GINGER DRIES, ARE ALMOST TWICE AS HOT AS GINGEROLS.
HENCE THE DRIED GINGER, WITH HALF THE WATER, MAY HAVE MORE THAN TWICE THE PUNGENCY. THAT MAY
WELL BE WHY THE CHINESE USE THE DRY GINGER FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES THAN THE FRESH.
THANKS TO FULDER (1996) FOR DREDGING UP SOME CONFUCIAN GINGER RECIPE, SOMETHING AKIN TO BEEF
JERKY: THEY WOULD BEAT THE BEEF, REMOVING THE SKINNY PARTS. THEN THEY LAID IT IN A FRAME OF REEDS
AND SPRINKLED IT WITH CINNAMON, GINGER, AND SALT. IT IS THEN EATEN ONCE DRIED. THEY ALSO PREPARED
DEER, ELK, AND MUTTON SIMILARLY (FULDER, 1996). IN WHAT COLOR IS YOUR DIET, DR. DAVID HEBER (2001),
PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND DIRECTOR OF THE UCLA CENTER FOR HUMAN NUTRITION SAYS “GINGER AND
GARLIC ARE CONTRASTING AND CAN BE USED WITH CUT UP BROCCOLI OR BRUSSELS SPROUTS.” HEBER NOTES THAT
STEAMED VEGETABLES WITH SUBTLE MILD TASTES “OR MILDLY UNPLEASANT TASTES” MAY NEED DRESSING UP,
AND SPICES CAN BE USED TO CONTRAST TWO FLAVORS. “A LOW FAT DIET BASED ON FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND
WHOLE GRAINS OFFERS THE BEST POSSIBLE DIET FOR ACHIEVING OPTIMUM HEALTH. AND THE RESULTS SHOW THAT
PEOPLE AROUND THE WORLD WHO EAT IN THIS MANNER, EXERCISE REGULARLY, AND AVOID TOBACCO HAVE THE
LEAST AMOUNT OF CANCER, HEART DISEASE, HYPERTENSION, DIABETES, AND OSTEOPOROSIS” (HEBER, 2001).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON ACTIVITIES, DOSAGES, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS, SEE THE CRC HANDBOOK OF
MEDICINAL HERBS, ED. 2, DUKE ET AL. 2002.
CULTIVATION (GINGER) — IN SOUTHERN INDIA, PLANTING BEGINS IN MAY, WHEN RAINS COMMENCE; LATER
IN OTHER AREAS. BEDS 2 M LONG AND ABOUT 1 M WIDE ARE PREPARED. SMALL HOLES 12 CM DEEP AND
7.5 CM APART ARE DUG, AND A RHIZOME PLANTED IN EACH. HOLES ARE FILLED WITH DRY COW-DUNG POWDER.
WHEN PLANTING AREA IS COMPLETED, BEDS ARE COVERED WITH GREEN-LEAFED TREE BRANCHES. AS LEAVES
WITHER AND FALL OFF, THEY ACT AS A GREEN FERTILIZER; BARE BRANCHES ARE REMOVED AND BEDS WEEDED.
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WHEN SHOOTS ARE 10–12 CM TALL, FRESH UNDRIED COW-DUNG AND LEAF MOLD ARE PLACED ON BEDS. ABOUT
A MONTH AFTER PLANTING, EDGES OF BEDS ARE RAISED TO ALLOW DRAINAGE FROM MONSOON RAINS. EXCEPT
FOR AN OCCASIONAL WEEDING, NO FURTHER CULTIVATION IS REQUIRED UNTIL HARVESTING IN DECEMBER OR
JANUARY. PLANTS REQUIRE 9 MONTHS TO MATURE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. IN WEST INDIES, GINGER IS OFTEN
GROWN ON RIDGES ABOUT 1 M APART, PLANTS ARE SPACED 30–45 CM APART IN THE ROW. WHEN PLANTED
IN BEDS 45 CM WIDE, A ROW OF GINGER IS PLANTED ALONG EACH EDGE, WITH SIDES OF RIDGE NEARLY
PERPENDICULAR. PLANTING DONE IN MARCH AND APRIL. RHIZOMES ARE BROKEN INTO PIECES 2.5–5 CM
LONG, EACH CUTTING HAVING AT LEAST ONE BUD. BEFORE PLANTING, HOLES OR FURROWS ARE PARTLY FILLED
WITH MANURE, THEN CUTTINGS PUT IN, SPACED 30–45 CM APART, AND COVERED WITH 7.5–10 CM OF SOIL.
AFTER PLANTING, BEDS ARE SHADED WITH BRANCHES, THEN LEAF MOLD IS ADDED LATER. PLANTINGS LAST SEVERAL
YEARS BUT BEGIN TO DECLINE TO UNECONOMICAL LEVELS AFTER FIFTH YEAR. AFTER 3 YEARS, GINGER IS USUALLY
ROTATED WITH CORN, PEAS, YAMS, OR LENTILS, TO ENRICH SOIL, SO THAT, AT END OF 5 YEARS OF ROTATION, THE
AREA MAY BE PLANTED TO GINGER AGAIN. ALTHOUGH FERTILIZERS DO INCREASE YIELDS, THEY MAKE DRYING
RHIZOME MORE DIFFICULT. OFTEN CULTIVATED IN SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND AS AN ANNUAL. IN FAVORABLE
LOCATIONS, RATOON CROPS MAY BE GROWN, BUT RATOONING IS PRACTICABLE ONLY WITH GINGER GROWN FOR
LATE HARVESTING. IF CROP IS RATOONED AFTER EARLY HARVEST, IT SHOOTS BEFORE WINTER, AND NEW GROWTH
IS DESTROYED BY FROST OR DIES OFF IN NEAR-FROST TEMPERATURES. GINGER AND TURMERIC ARE WELL SUITED
FOR MIXED CULTIVATION. PURCHASED GINGER ROOTS CAN BE PLANTED IN YOUR WINDOW HERB BOX AND
HARVESTED MUCH LATER WHEN THE SPROUTED LEAVES HAVE GONE DORMANT (DAD, RIN). CROP IS READY
FOR HARVEST WHEN STEM TURNS WHITE, BEFORE RHIZOMES GET FIBROUS AND TOUGH. ROOTS ARE DUG LIKE
POTATOES. AFTER BEING DUG, WELL-RIPENED LARGE RHIZOMES ARE SPREAD ON MATS 2.5–3.5 M ABOVE A
FIREPLACE AND SMOKED TO DRY AND PRESERVE THEM. FOR RHIZOMES DESTINED FOR MARKET, FIBROUS ROOTS
ARE REMOVED, AND RHIZOMES ARE WASHED, DECORTICATED, DRIED, AND SOMETIMES BLEACHED. RHIZOMES
DESTINED FOR REPLANTING ARE HEAPED AND COVERED WITH LEAF MOLD OR MANURE TO KEEP THEM FROM
DRYING OUT UNTIL PLANTING. RHIZOMES MUST BE FREQUENTLY TURNED AND PROTECTED FROM NIGHT DEW. IN
HAWAII, GINGER IS HARVESTED FROM JANUARY TO APRIL, WHEN PRICES ARE LOW DUE TO LARGE IMPORTS OF
GINGER FROM OTHER REGIONS. ONE KG OF PLANTED RHIZOME YIELDS 25–61.5 KG FRESH RHIZOME, THE
QUALITY DEPENDING ON CULTURE, SOIL, AND WEATHER CONDITIONS. AS EACH RHIZOME WEIGHS ABOUT 450
GM, AND EACH PLANT PRODUCES ABOUT 9 SUCH RHIZOMES, YIELDS OF 5 TONS OR MORE OF GREEN GINGER
AND 0.5 TONS OR MORE OF DRIED RHIZOME/HA ARE EASILY POSSIBLE. BY CAREFUL CULTIVATION AND MANURING,
YIELDS CAN BE INCREASED (DAD). FOR MORE DETAILS SEE DUKE AND DUCELLIER (1993) AND PURSEGLOVE
ET AL. (1981).
CHEMISTRY (GINGER) — PATEL AND SRINIVASAN (1985) NOTED THAT DIETARY GINGER SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED
LIPASE, MALTASE, AND SUCRASE ACTIVITIES. THE PROTEIN IS RICH IN THREONINE AND PROLINE BUT CONTAINS LITTLE
OR NO TRYPTOPHAN. ASPARAGINE AND PIPECOLIC ACID HAVE BEEN ISOLATED FROM AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF THE
RHIZOMES. HERE ARE A FEW OF THE MORE NOTABLE CHEMICALS FOUND IN GINGER. FOR A COMPLETE LISTING OF
THE PHYTOCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES, SEE THE CRC PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPENDIUM, DUKE AND DUCELLIER, 1993 (DAD) AND THE USDA DATABASE HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/.
10-GINGERDIONE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY (>INDOMETHACIN); ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50 = 1.0 ΜM.
6-GINGERDIONE — ANTIINFLAMMATORY (>INDOMETHACIN); ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN IC50 = 1.6 ΜM.
GINGERENONE-A — ANTICOCCIDIOID 10 PPM; FUNGICIDE 10 PPM.
GINGERENONE-B — FUNGICIDE.
GINGERENONE-C — FUNGICIDE.
GINGEROL — ANALGESIC; ANTIAGGREGANT 0.5–20 ΜM, 10–100 ΜM; ANTIALLERGIC; ANTICANCER; ANTIEMETIC; ANTIHEPATOTOXIC; ANTIHISTAMINIC; ANTIINFLAMMATORY; ANTIOXIDANT; ANTIPROSTAGLANDIN 0.5–20
ΜM; ANTIPYRETIC; ANTISCHISTOSOMIC 5 PPM; ANTISEPTIC; ANTITHROMBOXANE 0.5–20 ΜM; CARDIOTONIC
1–30 ΜM; CHOLAGOGUE; CYCLOOXYGENASE-INHIBITOR; FUNGICIDE; GASTROSTIMULANT; HEPATOPROTECTIVE;
Z
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HYPOTENSIVE; INOTROPIC 1–30 ΜM; MOLLUSCICIDE 5 PPM, LD20 = 12.5 PPM; MUTAGENIC; NEMATICIDE;
POSITIVE INOTROPIC 1–30 ΜG/ML; SCHISTOSOMICIDE EC100 = 10 PPM; SEDATIVE; THERMOGENIC.
6-GINGEROL — SEE ALSO AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA.
8-GINGEROL — SEE ALSO AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA.
ZINGIBERENE — SEE ALSO CURCUMA ZEDOARIA.
ZINGIBEROL — SEE ALSO CURCUMA XANTHORRHIZA.
ZINGIBERONE — ANTIMUTAGENIC; ANTIULCER.
WELL, YOU HAVE TOURED THE SPICES WITH ME, FROM AFRAMOMUM TO ZINGIBER. RECENTLY I APPEARED WITH
NINA SIMONDS ON A FUNDRAISER FOR MARYLAND PUBLIC TV. THEY SHOWED NINA’S VIDEO, A SPOONFULL OF
GINGER, BETWEEN PLEDGE PITCHES. I TOLD NINA SHE SHOULD GET RIGHTS TO USE THAT FAMOUS TRUMPETER’S
VERSION OF “A TASTE OF HONEY” AND COME OUT WITH A RECIPE FOR HONEY CANDIED GINGER. I’D LIKE TO
CLOSE WITH SOME OF NINA’S COMMENTS RECOUNTING HOW SHE, LIKE ME, HAD BEEN CONVERTED TO NATURAL
MEDICINE. HER CONVERSION WAS A YIN-YANG CONVERSION IN CHINA, MY CONVERSION, MORE EARTHY, WAS
IN THE RAIN FORESTS OF PANAMA. NOW WE BOTH SHARE HIPPOCRATES DICTUM: LET FOOD BE YOUR FARMACY
[SIC! STET!]
NINA’S NICE BOOK COMBINES THE BEST OF BOTH FOOD AND FOOD FARMACY. HER CHARMING INTRODUCTORY
ANECDOTE DISCUSSED HER PROBLEM BACK IN 1972, STOMACHACHE, FROM HAVING CONSUMED TOO MANY YIN
FOODS PROPORTIONATE TO THE YANG FOODS SHE CONSUMED AFTER ARRIVING IN TAPEI FOR A 3.5-YEAR SOJOURN
OF CHINA. THE CURE, EAT SOME YANG FOODS. AMONG THOSE YANG SPICES, THE GINGER THAT CURED HER
STOMACHACHE SO WELL THAT SHE WROTE THE BOOK, HER SPOONFUL OF GINGER, WITH A LOT OF RECIPES FOR
CURRY, A HOT YANG COMBINATION OF SPICES, INCLUDING GINGER’S FIRST COUSIN, TURMERIC.
SHE PREFACES HER BOOK WITH THE TWO QUOTES WHICH CLOSE MY BOOK:
“LET FOOD BE YOUR MEDICINE AND MEDICINE BE YOUR FOOD.”—HIPPOCRATES
“TO TAKE MEDICINE ONLY WHEN YOU ARE SICK IS LIKE DIGGING A WELL WHEN YOU ARE THIRSTY. IS IT NOT ALREADY
TOO LATE?”—THE YELLOW EMPEROR’S CLASSIC OF INTERNAL MEDICINE (~4500 B.C.).
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
REFERENCE ABBREVIATIONS
FREQUENTLY WE WILL CITE THE THREE-LETTER ABBRAVIATION FOLLOWED BY THE VOLUME NUMBER AND THE FIRST PAGE
OF THE CITATION AS A SHORTHAND UNIQUELY IDENTIFYING IN THE DATABASE, CRC ED. 2, AS WELL AS THIS BOOK.
(BOOK AND JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS)
60P DESMARCHELIER AND WITTING SCHAUS (2000)
AAB ARVIGO AND BALICK (1993)
AAR ARNDT (1999)
ABS SIQUERA ET AL. (1998)
ACN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL NUTRITION
ACT ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES
AEH DESMET ET AL. (1993, 1997)
AEL LEUNG’S (CHINESE) HERB NEWS, FOLLOWED BY NUMBER AND PAGE (E.G., AEL31:3)
AHP MCGUFFIN ET AL. (1997)
AJC AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE
AKT TILLOTSON ET AL. (2001)
AMA ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE ALERT
AOT TUCKER ET AL. (1994)
APA PEIRCE (1999)
APP ACTA PHYSIOLOGICA ET PHARMACOLOGICA BULGICA
ARC ALOE RESEARCH COUNCIL
ATM ATOMS JOURNAL PUBLICATION
AYL LEUNG (1980), OR LEUNG’S NEWSLETTER WHEN FOLLOWED BY NUMBERS
BIB DUKE (1983)
BGB BLUMENTHAL ET AL. (2000)
BIS BISSET (1994)
BOI BOIK (1995)
BJH BRITISH JOURNAL OF HAEMATOLOGY (E.G., BJH111:359; 2000, VOL. 111, P. 359)
BO2 BOIK (2001)
BOW BROWN (2001)
BPCC BIOSYN. PROD. CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY
BRI BRINKER (1998)
BRU BRUNETON (1999)
CAN NEWALL, ANDERSON, AND PHILLIPSON (1996)
CEB ERICHSEN-BROWN (1989)
CFR REED (1976)
COX NEWMARK AND SCHULICK (2000)
CRC DUKE (1985)
CTD CASTNER, TIMME, AND DUKE (1998)
DAA DUKE AND AYENSU (1985)
DAD DUKE AND DUCELLIER (1993)
DAV DUKE AND VASQUEZ MARTINEZ (1994)
DAW DUKE AND WAIN (1991)
DAZ DE LUCCA AND ZALLES (1992)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DEM MOERMAN (1998)
DEP WATT (1889–1892, REPRINT 1972)
DON BROWN (2000)
EB ECONOMIC BOTANY
ECON. BOT. ECONOMIC BOTANY
EFS STEINMETZ (1957)
EJH HOFFMAN (1999)
EMP ECONOMIC & MEDICINAL PLANT RESEARCH
FAC FACCIOLA (1998)
FAD FOSTER AND DUKE (1990)
FA2 FOSTER AND DUKE (2000)
FAS FOREIGN AGRICULTURE SERVICE (OF USDA)
FAY FOSTER AND YUE (1992)
FEL FELTER AND LLOYD (1898)
FFJ FLAVOUR AND FRAGRANCE JOURNAL
FIT FITOTERAPIA
FLP FLORA OF PAKISTAN (USDA PL480 PROJECT)
FNF FATHER'S NATURE'S FARMACY (ONLINE DATABASE AVAILABLE AT, HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/)
GEO GUENTHER (1948–1952)
GHA GHAZANFAR (1994)
GMH GRIEVE (1931)
GMJ GRENAND, MORETTI, AND JACQUEMIN (1987)
HAD AN HERB A DAY; BY JIM DUKE, PUBLISHED IN BUSINESS OF HERBS, AND/OR WILD FOOD FORUM
HDN NEUWINGER (1996)
HDR HERBAL DESK REFERENCE; ONLINE VERSION UNDER MY MEDICAL BOTANY SYLLABUS (MBS)
HD1 DUKE (2000)
HEG HEGNAUER (CHEMOTAXONOMIE DER PFLANZEN), BIRKHAUSER VERLAG, MULTIPLE VOLUMES
HFH HERBS FOR HEALTH FOLLOWED BY JA JULY AUG. ‘99 (1999)
HG HERBALGRAM (FOLLOWED BY NUMBER WITHOUT SPACE; E.G., HG17 HERBALGRAM NO. 17)
HHB LIST AND HOHAMMER (1969–1979)
HH2 HAGER’S HANDBUCH, 2ND ED., HANSEL ET AL.
HH3 HAGER’S HANDBUCH, 3RD ED., BLASCHEK ET AL.
HIL HILDEGARD, TRANSLATED BY THROOP, P. (1998)
HOB HOBBS (1996)
HOC TYLER (1994)
HOP DUKE AND ATCHLEY (1986)
HOW DUKE (1992)
HOX AUSUBEL (2000)
IED DUKE (1986)
IHB BURKILL (1966)
IJA INDIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES (59, 1989)
IJC INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CANCER RESEARCH
IJE INDIAN JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY (29, 1991)
IJI INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE
IJP INDIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES (52, 1990)
JAC JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE
JAD JAMES A. DUKE, PERSONAL COMMENTARY
JAF JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY
JAH JOURNAL OF AMERICAN HERBALIST GUILD
JAH2 WINSTON (2001)
JAM JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
JAMA JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
JAR INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AROMATHERAPY
JBH HARBORNE AND BAXTER (1983)
JBU AROMATHERAPY: A PLACE IN HERBAL MEDICINE, HERBALGRAM, BUCKLE, J. (ED.)
JE JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY
JFM MORTON (1977, 1981)
JLH HARTWELL (1982)
JLR JOURNAL OF LONGEVITY RESEARCH
JN JOURNAL OF NUTRITION
JNE JOURNAL OF NUTRITIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE
JNP JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
JNS JOURNAL OF NUTRITION SCIENCE, VITAMINOL
JNU JOSEPH, NADEAU, AND UNDERWOOD (2001)
JPP JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACOLOGY
KAB KIRTIKAR AND BASU (REPRINT, 1975)
KAP KAPOOR (1990)
KCH HUANG (1993)
KEB BONE (1996)
KOM BLUMENTHAL ET AL. (1998) (COMMISSION E.)
LAB LAWSON AND BAUER (1998)
LAF LEUNG AND FOSTER (1995)
LAW KOCH AND LAWSON (1996)
LEG DUKE (1981)
LEL LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS (1977)
LIB LIBSTER (2002)
LIL LIVING LIQUEURS, DUKE (1987)
LMP PERRY (1980)
LRN LAWRENCE REVIEW OF NATURAL PRODUCTS, LOOSELEAF; PERIODICALLY UPDATED
LRNP LAWRENCE REVIEW OF NATURAL PRODUCTS, LOOSELEAF; PERIODICALLY UPDATED
M&I MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY
M11 MERCK MANUAL, 11TH ED.
M12 MERCK MANUAL, 12TH ED.
M28 MARTINDALES, 28TH ED.
M29 MARTINDALES, 29TH ED.
M30 MARTINDALES, 30TH ED.
MAB MILLS AND BONE (1999)
MAD MADAUS (1976)
MAM MILLER AND MURRAY (1998)
MAP MURRAY AND PIZZORNO (1991)
MB BLUMENTHAL, PERSONAL COMMUNICATRION
MBB BAJRACHARYA (SEE AKT; TILLOTSON’S NEPALESE MENTOR)
MBC MARTINEZ, BERNAL, AND CACERES (2000)
MIC MICMAC MODULE OF DUKE’S ONLINE MEDICAL BOTANY SYLLABUS
MLM MCCALEB, LEIGH, AND MORIEN (2000)
MPB MORS, RIZZINI, AND PEREIRA (2000)
MPG GUPTA (1995)
MPI INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH (ICMR) (1976, 1987)
NAD NADKARNI (1976)
NH NATURE’S HERBS, PERSONAL COMMUNICATION, GRANT OR RICH
NR NUTRITION REVIEWS
NUT DUKE (1989)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
OMM ORIENTAL MATERIA MEDICA (THREE VOLUMES BY DR. HSU AND COLLABORATORS)
PAM PIZZORNO AND MURRAY (1985)
PC PHYTOCHEMISTRY (29, 1990)
PCF HUANG, HO, AND LEE (1992)
PDR PHYSICIANS' DESK REFERENCE (ED. 45, 1991)
PEA PURSEGLOVE ET AL. (1981)
PED PEDERSEN (1998)
PEP PAKISTAN ENCYCLOPEDIA PLANTA MEDICA (1986)
PFH BLAND FOOD HUM. NUTR.,
PH2 GRUENWALD ET AL. (2000)
PHM PHYTOMEDICINE
PHR PDR FOR HERBAL MEDICINE, 1ST ED., FLEMING, ET AL. (1998)
PIP SCHILCHER (1997)
PJB PROTOCOL JOURNAL OF BOTANICAL MEDICINE, (VOL. 1, NO. 1, 1995; SINCE TERMINATED)
PM PLANTA MEDICA (56, 1990)
PNC WILLIAMSON AND EVANS (1989)
PR PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH
PS PLANT SCIENCE (IRELAND)
QRNM QUARTERLY REVIEW OF NATURAL MEDICINE
RAR RUTTER (1990)
RAT ROBBERS AND TYLER (1999)
RFW WEISS (1988)
RIN RINZLER (1990)
RYM ROIG Y MESA (1928)
SAB SABINSA (1998)
SAR SCHULTES AND RAFFAUF (1990)
SAS TAINTER AND GRENIS (1993)
SHB BUHNER (2000)
SF FOSTER (1996)
SF2 FOSTER (1998)
SHT SCHULZ, HANSEL, AND TYLER (1998)
SKJ JAIN (1991)
SKY LININGER ET AL. (1998)
SN SCIENCE NEWS (FOLLOWED BY NUMBER AND PAGE)
SPI CHARALAMBOUS (1994)
SUW SUWAL (1976)
SYN CHALLEM, BERKSON, AND SMITH (2000)
TAD TUCKER AND DEBAGGIO (2000)
TAN TANAKA (1976)
TGP DUKE (1997)
TIB KLETTER AND KRIECHBAUM (2001)
TMA TIME-LIFE (1996)
TOM CRELLIN AND PHILPOTT (1990)
TOX KEELER AND TU (1991)
TRA GERMOSÉN-ROBINEAU (1997)
UPW BURKILL (1985–2000)
USA USDA'S AG HANDBOOK 8 AND SEQUELAE
USD USDA’S NOMENCLATURE DATABASE
VAG VAN WYK AND GERICKE (2000)
VVG VAN WYK, VAN OUDTSHOORN, AND GERIKE (1997)
WAF WHITE ET AL. (2000)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
WAG WRIGHT AND GABY (1999)
WAM WHITE AND MAVOR (1998)
WBB WATT AND BREYER-BRANDWIJK (1962)
WER WERBACH (1993)
WHO WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1999)
WIC WICHTL (1984)
WOI COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH (CSIR) (1948–1976)
WO2 THE WEALTH OF INDIA, REVISED; THREE NEW VOLUMES PUBLISHED (1985–1992)
WO3 THE WEALTH OF INDIA, FIRST SUPPLEMENT SERIES (2000)
X AS A PREFIX FOLLOWED BY A BIG NUMBER, A PUBMED REFERENCE CITATION (E.G., X123456)
YAN YANOVSKY (1936)
ZIM GELFAND ET AL. (1985)
ZUL HUTCHINGS ET AL. (1996)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
REFERENCES
ABAUL, J., BOURGEOIS, P., AND BESSIERE, J.M., CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF THE CHEMOTYPES OF
PIMENTA RACEMOSA VAR. RACEMOSA (P. MILLER), J. W. MOORE, BOIDS D’INDE OF GUADELOUPE (F.W.I.), FLAV.
& FRAGR. J., 10:319–21, 1995.
ABREU, P.M. AND NORONHA, R.G., VOLATILE CONSTITUENTS OF THE RHIZOMES OF AFRAMOMUM ALBOVIOLACEUM FLAV. &
FRAGR. J., 12:79–83, 1997.
ABUHARFEIL, N.M., SALIM, M., AND VON KLEIST, S., AUGMENTATION OF NATURAL KILLER CELL ACTIVITY IN VIVO AGAINST
TUMOUR CELLS BY SOME WILD PLANTS FROM JORDAN, PHYTOTHER. RES., 15(2):109–113, 2001.
ADEBAJO, A.C. AND REISCH, J., MINOR FUROCOUMARINS OF MURRAYA KOENIGII, FITOTERAPIA, 71(3):334–7, 2000.
ADEGUNLOYE, B.J. ET AL., MECHANISMS OF THE BLOOD PRESSURE LOWERING EFFECT OF THE CALYX EXTRACT OF HIBISCUS
SABDARIFFA IN RATS. AFR. J. MED. MED. SCI., 25(3):235–8, 1996. (X10457797)
ADESANYA, S.A. AND SOFOWORA, A., PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF CANDIDATE PLANTS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA, IN PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF PLANTS USED IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE, HOSTETTMANN, K. ET AL.,
EDS., (PROC. PHYTOCHEM. SOC. EUR. 37), OXFORD SCIENCE PUBLICATIONS, NEW YORK, 1995.
ADEWUNMI ET AL., MOLLUSCICIDAL AND ANTISCHISTOSOMAL ACTIVITIES OF ZINGIBER OFFICINALE, PLANTS MED., 56(4):374,
1990.
AGARWAL, M. ET AL., INSECT GROWTH INHIBITION, ANTIFEEDANT AND ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF COMPOUNDS ISOLATED/DERIVED
FROM ZINGIBER OFFICINALE ROSCOE (GINGER) RHIZOMES, PEST MANAG. SCI., 57(3):289–300), 2001.
(X11455660)
AHMED, R.S., SETH, V., AND BANERJEE, B.D., INFLUENCE OF DIETARY GINGER (ZINGIBER OFFICINALIS ROSC.) ON ANTIOXIDANT DEFENSE SYSTEM IN RAT: COMPARISON WITH ASCORBIC ACID, INDIAN J. EXP. BIOL., 38(6):604–6, 2000.
(X11116533)
AL-BEKAIRI, A.M. ET AL., TOXICITY STUDIES ON ALLIUM CEPA, ITS EFFECT ON ESTRADIOL-TREATED MICE AND ON EPIDIDYMAL
SPERMATOZOA, FITOTERAPIA, 60(11):301–6, 1991.
ALFS, M., EDIBLE & MEDICINAL WILD PLANTS OF MINNESOTA & WISCONSIN, OLD THEOLOGY BOOKHOUSE, NEW BRIGHTON,
MN, 2001.
ALTMAN, R.D. AND MARCUSSEN, K.C., EFFECTS OF A GINGER EXTRACT ON KNEE PAIN IN PATIENTS WITH OSTEOARTHRITIS,
ARTHRITIS RHEUM., 44(11):2531–8, 2001. (X11710709)
AL-YAHYA, M.A. ET AL., GASTRIC ANTISECRETORY, ANTIULCER, AND CYTOPROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACT OF A.
GALANGA WILLD. IN RATS, PHYTOTHER. RES., 4(3):112–4, 1990. (PR)
AMAGASE, H. ET AL., INTAKE OF GARLIC AND ITS BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS, J. NUTR., 131(3S):955S-62S, 2001.
(X11238796)
AMES, B.N., MAGAW, R., AND GOLD, L.S., RANKING POSSIBLE CARCINOGENIC HAZARDS, SCIENCE, 236: 271–280, 1987.
ANDREWS, J., PEPPER — THE DOMESTICATED CAPSICUMS, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS, AUSTIN, 1995.
ANON., COUMARIN CONTAINING PLANTS IN UILIZATION ABSTRACTS, ECON. BOT., 2:333–338, 1948.
ANON., ESSENTIAL OILS OF PEPPERMINT, ORANGE OR LEMONGRASS KILL MOST STRAINS OF FUNGAL AND BACTERIAL INFECTIONS,
POSIT. HEALTH NEWS, 17:26–7, 1998. (X11366554)
ARNDT, A., SEASONING SAVVY — HOW TO COOK WITH HERBS, SPICES, AND OTHER FLAVORINGS, HAWORTH HERBAL PRESS,
NEW YORK, 1999.
ARUNA, K. AND SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, V.M., PLANT PRODUCTS AS PROTECTIVE AGENTS AGAINST CANCER, INDIAN J. EXP. BIOL.,
28(11):1008–1011, 1990.
ARVIGO, R. AND BALICK, M., RAIN FOREST REMEDIES — ONE HUNDRED HEALING HERBS OF BELIZE, LOTUS PRESS, TWIN
LAKES, WI, 1993. (AAB)
ASAI, A. AND MIYAZAWA, T., DIETARY CURCUMINOIDS PREVENT HIGH-FAT DIET–INDUCED LIPID ACCUMULATION IN RAT LIVER
AND EPIDIDYMAL ADIPOSE TISSUE, J. NUTR., 131:2932–2935, 2001.
BADARY, O.A. AND GAMAL EL-DIN, A.M., INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF THYMOQUINONE AGAINST 20-METHYLCHOLANTHRENEINDUCED FIBROSARCOMA TUMORIGENESIS, CANCER DETECT. PREV., 25(4):362–8, 2001.
BADARY, O.A. ET AL., INHIBITION OF BENZO(A)PYRENE-INDUCED FORESTOMACH CARCINOGENESIS IN MICE BY THYMOQUINONE, EUR. J. CANCER PREV., 8(5):435–40, 1999.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
BECKSTROM-STERNBERG, S.M. AND DUKE, J.A., POTENTIAL FOR SYNERGISTIC ACTION OF PHYTOCHEMICALS IN SPICES, IN
SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V., 1994.
BERGNER, P., THE HEALING POWER OF GARLIC, PRIMA PUBLISHING, ROCKLIN, CA, 1996.
BLUMENTHAL, M. ET AL., EDS., THE COMPLETE GERMAN COMMISSION E MONOGRAPHS. THERAPEUTIC GUIDE TO HERBAL
MEDICINES, AMERICAN BOTANICAL COUNCIL, AUSTIN, TX AND INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE COMMUNICATIONS,
BOSTON, MA, 1998. (KOM)
BOAKYE-YIADOM, K., FIAGBE, N.I., AND AYIM, J.S., ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF SOME WEST AFRICAN MEDICINAL
PLANTS IV. ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF XYLOPIC ACID AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS OF THE FRUITS OF XYLOPIA
AETHIOPICA (ANNONACEAE), LLOYDIA, 40(6):543–5, 1977. (X600023)
BOIK, J., CANCER AND NATURAL MEDICINE, OREGON MEDICAL PRESS, PRINCETON, MN, 1995. (BOI)
BOIK, J., NATURAL COMPOUNDS IN CANCER THERAPY — PROMISING NONTOXIC ANTITUMOR AGENTS FROM PLANTS AND
OTHER NATURAL SOURCES, OREGON MEDICAL PRESS, PRINCETON, MN., 2001. (BO2)
BORDIA, A. ET AL., EFFECTS OF THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF GARLIC AND ONION ON ALIMENTARY HYPERLIPIDEMIA, ATHEROSCLEROSIS,
21(1):15–9, 1975.
BOREK, C., ANTIOXIDANT HEALTH EFFECTS OF AGED GARLIC EXTRACT, J. NUTR., 131(3S):1010S, 2001.
BOWN, D., NEW ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HERBS & THEIR USES, REVISED AMERICAN ED., D.K. PUBLISHING, INC., NEW YORK,
NY, 2001. (BOW)
BRIGGS, W.H. ET AL., ADMINISTRATION OF RAW ONION INHIBITS PLATELET-MEDIATED THROMBOSIS IN DOGS, J. NUTR.,
131(10):2619–22, 2001.
BROWN, D., GINGER ALLEVIATES NAUSEA AND VOMITING OF PREGNANCY, HERBALGRAM, 53:21–2, 2001.
BRUNETON, J., PHARMACOGNOSY, PHYTOCHEMISTRY, MEDICINAL PLANTS, 2ND ED., LAVOISIER PUBLISHING, PARIS, 1999.
(BRU)
BUCHANAN, R.L., TOXICITY OF SPICES CONTAINING METHYLENEDIOXYBENZENE DERIVATIVES: A REVIEW, J. FOOD SAFETY,
1:275, 1978.
BURITS, M. AND BUCAR, F., ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF NIGELLA SATIVA ESSENTIAL OIL. PHYTOTHER. RES., 14(5):323–8, 2000.
BURKILL, H.M., THE USEFUL PLANTS OF WEST TROPICAL AFRICA, ROYAL BOTANICAL GARDENS, KEW, 2ND ED., VOL. 1, AD, 1985; VOL. 2, E-I, 1994; VOL. 3, J-L, 1995; VOL. 4, M-R, 1997; VOL. 5, S-Z, 2000. (UPW)
CACERES, A. ET AL., PHARMACOLOGIC PROPERTIES OF M. OLEIFERA 2 — SCREENING FOR ANTISPASMODIC, ANTIINFLAMMATORY
AND DIURETIC ACTIVITY, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 36(3):233–7, 1992. (JE36:233)
CAMPOS, M.G. ET AL., XANTHORRHIZOL INDUCES ENDOTHELIUM-INDEPENDENT RELAXATION OF RAT THORACIC AORTA, LIFE
SCI., 67(3):327–33, 2000. (X10983876)
CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE FUNGI, ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V., 1994. (SPI)
CHASAN, R., ED., EDITORIAL COMMENTS ON SHERMAN, P.W. AND BILLING, J., DARWINIAN GASTRONOMY — WHY WE
USE SPICES. SPICES TASTE GOOD BECAUSE THEY ARE GOOD FOR US, BIOSCIENCE, 49(6):453–463, 1999.
CHEN, H.C., CHANG, M.D., AND CHANG, T.J., ANTIBACTERIAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SPICE PLANTS BEFORE AND AFTER HEAT
TREATMENT, ZHONGHUA MIN GUO WEI SHENG WU JI MIAN YI XUE ZA ZHI, 18(3):190–5, 1985. (X4064797)
CHENG, A.L. ET AL., PHASE I CLINICAL TRIAL OF CURCUMIN, A CHEMOPREVENTIVE AGENT, IN PATIENTS WITH HIGH-RISK OR
PRE-MALIGNANT LESIONS, ANTICANCER RES., 21(4B):2895–900, 2001. (X11712783)
CHEWONARIN, T. ET AL., EFFECTS OF ROSELLE (HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA LINN.), A THAI MEDICINAL PLANT, ON THE MUTAGENICITY
OF VARIOUS KNOWN MUTAGENS IN SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM AND ON FORMATION OF ABERRANT CRYPT FOCI INDUCED
BY THE COLON CARCINOGENS AZOXYMETHANE AND 2-AMINO-1-METHYL-6-PHENYLIMIDAZO[4,5-B]PYRIDINE IN
F344 RATS, FOOD CHEM. TOXICOL., 37(6):591–601, 1999. (X10478827)
CHU, D.M. ET AL., AMEBICIDAL ACTIVITY OF PLANT EXTRACTS FROM SOUTHEAST ASIA ON ACANTHAMOEBA SPP., PARASITOL
RES., 84(9):746–52, 1998. (X9766904)
CHUNG, W.Y. ET AL., ANTIOXIDATIVE AND ANTITUMOR PROMOTING EFFECTS OF [6]-PARADOL AND ITS HOMOLOGS, MUTAT.
RES., 496(1–2):199–206, 2001.
CSIR (COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH), THE WEALTH OF INDIA — A DICTIONARY OF INDIAN RAW
MATERIALS & INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS, 11 VOLS., CSIR, NEW DELHI, 2ND ED. IN PROCESS AND THREE NEW VOL.
PUBLISHED, 1948–1976. (WOI)
CSIR (COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH), THE WEALTH OF INDIA — REVISED EDITION, RAW MATERIALS,
VOL. I–A, CSIR, NEW DELHI, 1985.
DAVIES, M.J. ET AL., EFFECTS OF SOY OR RYE SUPPLEMENTATION OF HIGH-FAT DIETS ON COLON TUMOUR DEVELOPMENT IN
AZOXYMETHANE-TREATED RATS, CARCINOGENESIS, 20(6):927–31, 1999.
DE, M., KRISHNA DE, A., AND BANERJEE, A.B., ANTIMICROBIAL SCREENING OF SOME INDIAN SPICES, PHYTOTHER. RES.,
13(7):616–8, 1999.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
DEAN, K., PLANT PATENTS, HERBALGRAM, 50:3, 2000.
DEODHAR, S.D., SETHI, R., AND SHRIMAL, R.C., PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON ANTI-RHEUMATICACTIVITY OF CURCUMIN, IND.
J. MED. RES., 71:632–634, 1980.
DE PASCUAL-TERESA, S. ET AL., CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOMERIC AND OLIGOMERIC FLAVAN-3-OLS FROM UNRIPE ALMOND
FRUITS, PHYTOCHEM. ANAL., 9(1):21–27, 1998.
DE ROOS, N., SCHOUTEN, E., AND KATAN, M., CONSUMPTION OF A SOLID FAT RICH IN LAURIC ACID RESULTS IN A MORE
FAVORABLE SERUM LIPID PROFILE IN HEALTHY MEN AND WOMEN THAN CONSUMPTION OF A SOLID FAT RICH IN TRANSFATTY ACIDS, J. NUTR., 131(2):242–5, 2001.
DESAI, H.G. AND KALRO, R.H., EFFECT OF BLACK PEPPER AND ASAFOETIDA ON THE DNA CONTENT OF GASTRIC ASPIRATES,
IND. J. MED. RES., 82(1):325–9, 1985.
DIAMOND, W.J., THE CLINICAL PRACTICE OF COMPLEMENTARY, ALTERNATIVE, AND WESTERN MEDICINE, CRC PRESS,
BOCA RATON, FL, 2001.
DOMINIC, C.J. AND PANDEY, S.D., FAILURE OF DEODORIZED MALES TO INDUCE OESTRUS IN THE WILD MOUSE, ANN.
ENDOCRINOL., (PARIS) 40(3):229–34, 1979. (X573093)
DUKE, J.A., ECOSYSTEMATIC DATA ON ECONOMIC PLANTS, QUART. J. CRUDE DRUG RES., 17(3/4):91–110, 1979. (LEG)
DUKE, J.A., HANDBOOK OF LEGUMES OF WORLD ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, PLENUM PRESS, NEW YORK, 1981.
DUKE, J.A., MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE BIBLE, CONCH PUBLICATIONS, NEW YORK, 1983. (BIB)
DUKE, J.A., CULINARY HERBS — A POTPOURRI, TRADO-MEDIC BOOKS, BUFFALO, NY, 1985, OUT OF PRINT.
DUKE, J.A., HERBALBUM — AN ANTHOLOGY OF VARICOSE VERSE, PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 1985B.
DUKE, J.A., LIVING LIQUEURS, QUARTERMAN PRESS, LINCOLN, MA, 1987, OUT OF PRINT. (LIL)
DUKE, J.A., THE SPICE TRADE BEFORE AND AFTER COLUMBUS, AAAS MEETING, FEBRUARY 1991, AAAS PUB 91–02S,
AAAS, WASHINGTON, D.C., 1991.
DUKE, J.A., SPICE RACK/MEDICINE CHEST — FIVE HUNDRED YEARS AFTER COLUMBUS, LECTURE, WIDELY REPEATED IN
THE U.S. (E.G., AT THE SMITHSONIAN AND WITH OLD WAYS IN SPAIN), 1992. (HOW)
DUKE, J.A., HERBS OF THE BIBLE — 2000 YEARS OF PLANT MEDICINE, INTERWEAVE PRESS, LOVELAND, CO, 1999.
DUKE, J.A., THE GREEN PHARMACY HERBAL HANDBOOK, RODALE/REACH, 1997. (HD1)
DUKE, J.A AND ATCHLEY, A.A., HANDBOOK OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS TABLES OF HIGHER PLANTS, CRC PRESS, BOCA
RATON, FL, 1986. (HOP)
DUKE, J.A. AND DUCELLIER, J.L., HANDBOOK OF ALTERNATIVE CASH CROPS, CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL, 1993. (DAD)
DUKE, J.A. AND WAIN, K., MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE WORLD, USDA COMPUTER LISTING OF MEDICINES OF THE WORLD,
NOW SLIGHTLY UPDATED AND ONLINE AT USDA (HTTP://WWW.ARS-GRIN.GOV/DUKE/), 1981. (DAW)
DUKE, J.A. ET AL., CRC HANDBOOK OF MEDICINAL PLANTS, 2ND ED., CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, 2002.
DULL, R.E.T., U. S. SPICE TRADE, USDA FOR. AG. SERVICE, FTEA 1–90, NOT CITED SPECIFICALLY, BUT INTEGRAL TO
MY COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE LECTURE, 1990.
DULLO, A.G. ET AL., EFFICACY OF A GREEN TEA EXTRACT RICH IN CATECHIN POLYPHENOLS AND CAFFEINE IN INCREASING 24-
H ENERGY EXPENDITURE AND FAT OXIDATION IN HUMANS, AM. J. CLINICAL NUTRITION, 70:1040–5, 1999.
EL DALY, E.S., PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF CYSTEINE AND VITAMIN E, CROCUS SATIVUS AND NIGELLA SATIVA EXTRACTS ON
CISPLATIN-INDUCED TOXICITY IN RATS, J. PHARM. BELG., 53(2):87–93, DISCUSSION 93–5, 1998.
EL-DAKHAKHNY, M. ET AL., EFFECTS OF NIGELLA SATIVA OIL ON GASTRIC SECRETION AND ETHANOL INDUCED ULCER IN RATS,
J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 72(1–2):299–304, 2000.
EL-DAKHAKHNY, M., MADY, N.I. AND HALIM, M.A., NIGELLA SATIVA L. OIL PROTECTS AGAINST INDUCED HEPATOTOXICITY
AND IMPROVES SERUM LIPID PROFILE IN RATS. ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG, 50(9):832–6, 2000.
ELDERSHAW, T.P. ET AL., PUNGENT PRINCIPLES OF GINGER (ZINGIBER OFFICINALE) ARE THERMOGENIC IN THE PERFUSED RAT
HINDLIMB, INT. J. OBES. RELAT. METAB. DISORD., 16(10):755–63, 1992.
ELGAYYAR, M. ET AL., ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS FROM PLANTS AGAINST SELECTED PATHOGENIC AND
SAPROPHYTIC MICROORGANISMS, J. FOOD PROT., 64(7):1019–24, 2001. (X11456186)
EL TAHIR, K.E., ASHOUR, M.M., AND AL-HARBI, M.M., THE CARDIOVASCULAR ACTIONS OF THE VOLATILE OIL OF THE BLACK
SEED (NIGELLA SATIVA) IN RATS: ELUCIDATION OF THE MECHANISM OF ACTION, GEN. PHARMACOL., 24(5):1123–31,
1993.
EL TAHIR, K.E., ASHOUR, M.M., AND AL-HARBI, M.M., THE RESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF THE VOLATILE OIL OF THE BLACK SEED
(NIGELLA SATIVA) IN GUINEA-PIGS: ELUCIDATION OF THE MECHANISM(S) OF ACTION, GEN. PHARMACOL.,
24(5):1115–22, 1993B (X8270170)
ERICHSEN-BROWN, C., MEDICINAL AND OTHER USES OF NORTH AMERICAN PLANTS — A HISTORICAL SURVEY WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE EASTERN INDIAN TRIBES, DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., NEW YORK, NY, 1989.
FACCIOLA, S., CORNUCOPIA — A SOURCE BOOK OF EDIBLE PLANTS, KAMPONG PUBLICATIONS, VISTA, CA, 1998. (FAC)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
F.A.S. (FOREIGN AGRICULTURE SERVICE), USDA, SPICE IMPORT STATISTICS FROM THEIR WEB SITE, 2002.
FIORELLI, G. ET AL., ESTROGEN SYNTHESIS IN HUMAN COLON CANCER EPITHELIAL CELLS, J. STEROID BIOCHEM. MOL. BIOL.,
71(5–6):223–30, 1999.
FLEISCHAUER, A.T. AND ARAB, L., GARLIC AND CANCER: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE EPIDEMIOLOGIC LITERATURE, J. NUTR.,
131(3S):1032S-40S, 2001.
FOSTER, S. AND DUKE, J.A., A FIELD GUIDE TO MEDICINAL PLANTS. EASTERN AND CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA (PETERSON
FIELD GUIDES), ILLUSTR. HOUGHTON MIFLIN, BOSTON, MA, 1990. (FAD)
FOSTER, S. AND DUKE, J.A., A FIELD GUIDE TO MEDICINAL PLANTS AND HERBS OF EASTERN AND CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA
(PETERSON FIELD GUIDES), 2ND ED., ILLUSTR. HOUGHTON MIFLIN, BOSTON, MA, 2000. (FA2)
FUKUSHIMA, S. ET AL., SUPPRESSION OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS BY WATER-SOLUBLE ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUNDS, J.
NUTR., 131(3S):1049S-53S, 2001.
FULDER, S., THE GINGER BOOK — THE ULTIMATE HOME REMEDY, AVERY PUBLISHING GROUP, GARDEN CITY PARK, NY,
1996.
FULDER, S., THE GARLIC BOOK. NATURE’S POWERFUL HEALER, AVERY PUBLISHING GROUP, GARDEN CITY PARK, NY, 1997.
GARCIA, M.D. ET AL., TOPICAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY OF PHYTOSTEROLS ISOLATED FROM ERYNGIUM FOETIDUM ON
CHRONIC AND ACUTE INFLAMMATION MODELS, PHYTOTHER. RES., 13(1):78–80, 1999.
GERMOSÉN-ROBINEAU, ED., FARMACOPEA VEGETAL CARIBEÑA, ENDA-CARIBE, TRAMIL, EDICIONES EMILE DESORMEAUX,
MARTINIQUE, F.W.I., 1997. (TRA)
GHAZANFAR, S.A., HANDBOOK OF ARABIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS, CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL, 1994. (GHA)
GILANI, A.H. ET AL., BRONCHODILATOR, SPASMOLYTIC AND CALCIUM ANTAGONIST ACTIVITIES OF NIGELLA SATIVA SEEDS
(KALONJI) — A TRADITIONAL HERBAL PRODUCT WITH MULTIPLE MEDICINAL USES, J. PAK. MED. ASSOC.,
51(3):115–20, 2001.
GOTO, C. ET AL., LETHAL EFFICACY OF EXTRACT FROM ZINGIBER OFFICINALE (TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE) OR [6]-SHOGAOL
AND [6]-GINGEROL IN ANISAKIS LARVAE IN VITRO, PARASITOL. RES., 76(8):653–6, 1990.
GRIEVE, M., A MODERN HERBAL, HAFNER PRESS, NEW YORK, 1931; DOVER REPRINT, 2 VOLS, FIRST REPRINT 1971, DOVER,
NEW YORK. (GMH)
GRUENWALD, J. ET AL., PDR FOR HERBAL MEDICINE, 1ST ED., MEDICAL ECONOMICS CO., MONTVALE, NJ, 1998. (PHR)
GRUENWALD, J. ET AL., PDR FOR HERBAL MEDICINES, 2ND ED., MEDICAL ECONOMICS COMPANY, INC., MONTVALE, NJ,
2000. (PH2)
GUENTHER, E., THE ESSENTIAL OILS, 6 VOLUMES, D. VAN NOSTRAND, NEW YORK, 1948–1952. (GEO)
HABSAH, M. ET AL., SCREENING OF ZINGIBERACEAE EXTRACTS FOR ANTIMICROBIAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 72(3):403–10, 2000.
HAJI FARAJI, M. AND HAJI TARKHANI, A., THE EFFECT OF SOUR TEA (HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA) ON ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION,
J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 65(3):231–6, 1999. (X10404421)
HAILA, K.M., LIEVONEN, S.M., AND HIENONEN, M.I., EFFECTS OF LUTEIN, LYCOPENE, ANNATTO, AND GAMMA-TOCOPHEROL
ON AUTOXIDATION OF TRIGLYCERIDES, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 44(8):2096–2100, 1996.
HAMMER, K.A., CARSON, C.F., AND RILEY, T.V., ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND OTHER PLANT EXTRACTS,
J. APPL. MICROBIOL., 86(6):985–90, 1999. (X10438227)
HANSAWASDI, C., KAWABATA, J., AND KASAI, T., ALPHA-AMYLASE INHIBITORS FROM ROSELLE (HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA LINN.)
TEA, BIOSCI. BIOTECHNOL. BIOCHEM., 64(5):1041–3, 2000. (X10879476)
HANSAWASDI, C., KAWABATA, J., AND KASAI, T., HIBISCUS ACID AS AN INHIBITOR OF STARCH DIGESTION IN THE CACO-2
CELL MODEL SYSTEM, BIOSCI. BIOTECHNOL. BIOCHEM., 65(9):2087–9, 2001. (X11676026)
HANSEL, R. ET AL., EDS., HAGER’S HANDBUCH DER PHARMAZEUTISCHEN PRAXIS, DROGEN (A–D0, SPRINGER-VERLAG,
BERLIN, 1992. (HH2).
HANSEL, R. ET AL., EDS., HAGER’S HANDBUCH DER PHARMAZEUTISCHEN PRAXIS, DROGEN (E–O), SPRINGER-VERLAG,
BERLIN, 1992.
HARRIGAN, G.G. ET AL., ISOLATION OF BIOACTIVE AND OTHER OXOAPORPHINE ALKALOIDS FROM TWO ANNONACEOUS PLANTS,
XYLOPIA AETHIOPICA AND MILIUSA CF. BANACEA, J. NAT. PROD., 57(1):68–73, 1994. (X8158166)
HARTWELL, J.L., PLANTS USED AGAINST CANCER — A SURVEY, DUKE, J.A., ED., QUARTERMAN PUBLICATIONS, INC.,
LAWRENCE, MA, 1982, REPRINTED FROM ELEVEN DIFFERENT ISSUES OF LLOYDIA 1967–1971. (JLH)
HEBER, D., WHAT COLOR IS YOUR DIET?, REGAN BOOKS—HARPER COLLINS, NEW YORK, 2001.
HEISEY, R.M. AND GORHAM, B.K., ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTS OF PLANT EXTRACTS ON STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS, CANDIDA
ALBICANS, TRICHOPHYTUM RUBRUM AND OTHER MICRO-ORGANISMS, LETTS. APPL. MICROBIOL., 14:136–9, 1992.
HIKINO, H. ET AL., ANTIHEPATOTOXIC ACTIONS OF GINGEROLS AND DIARYLHEPTANOIDS, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 14(1):31–9,
1985.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
HORIE, T. ET AL., ALLEVIATION BY GARLIC OF ANTITUMOR DRUG-INDUCED DAMAGE TO THE INTESTINE, J. NUTR., 131(3S):1071S,
2001.
HOSTETTMANN, K. ET AL., EDS., PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF PLANTS USED IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE (PROC. PHYTOCHEM. SOC.
EUR. 37), OXFORD SCIENCE PUBLICATIONS, NEW YORK, 1995.
HOUGHTON, P.J. ET AL., FIXED OIL OF NIGELLA SATIVA AND DERIVED THYMOQUINONE INHIBIT EICOSANOID GENERATION IN
LEUKOCYTES AND MEMBRANE LIPID PEROXIDATION, PLANTA MED., 61(1):33–6, 1995.
HOULT, J.R. AND PAYA, M., PHARMACOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL ACTIONS OF SIMPLE COUMARINS: NATURAL PRODUCTS
WITH THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL, GEN. PHARMACOL., 27(4):713–22, 1996.
HUANG, M.-T., FERRARO, T., AND HO, C.T., CANCER CHEMOPREVENTION BY PHYTOCHEMICALS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
— AN OVERVIEW IN: FOOD PHYTOCHEMICALS FOR CANCER PREVENTION I, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, ACS
SYMPOSIUM SERIES 546, HUANG, M.-T. ET AL., EDS., THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON,
D.C., 1994.
HUSSAIN, R.A. ET AL., SWEETENING AGENTS OF PLANT ORIGIN — PHENYLPROPANOID CONSTITUENTS OF SEVEN SWEET-TASTING
AGENTS, ECON. BOT., 44(2):174–182, 1990.
HWANG, J.K., SHIM, J.S., AND PYUN, Y.R., ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF XANTHORRHIZOL FROM CURCUMA XANTHORRHIZA
AGAINST ORAL PATHOGENS, FITOTERAPIA, 71(3):321–3, 2000.
HWANG, J.K. ET AL., XANTHORRHIZOL — A POTENTIAL ANTIBACTERIAL AGENT FROM CURCUMA XANTHORRHIZA AGAINST
STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS, PLANTA MED., 66(2):196–7, 2000.
ICMR (INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH), MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA, VOL.1, INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL
RESEARCH, CAMBRIDGE PRINTING WORKS, NEW DELHI, 1976; VOL.2, INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH,
CAMBRIDGE PRINTING WORKS, NEW DELHI, 1987. (MPI)
INOUYE, S., UCHIDA, K., AND YAMAGUCHI, H., IN-VITRO AND IN-VIVO ANTI-TRICHOPHYTON ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS BY
VAPOUR CONTACT, MYCOSES, 44(3–4):99–107, 2001. (X11413931)
JAFRI, M.A. ET AL., EVALUATION OF THE GASTRIC ANTIULCEROGENIC EFFECT OF LARGE CARDAMOM (FRUITS OF AMOMUM
SUBULATUM ROXB), J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 75(2–3):89–94, 2001. (X11297839)
JAIN, M.K. AND APITZ-CASTRO, R., GARLIC — A MATTER FOR HEART, IN: SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V., AMSTERDAM, 1994.
JAIN, S.K. AND DEFILLIPS, R., MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA, 2 VOLS., REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS, ALGONAC, MI, 1991.
(SKJ)
JANG, M.K., SOHN, D.H., AND RYU, J.H., A CURCUMINOID AND SESQUITERPENES AS INHIBITORS OF MACROPHAGE TNFALPHA RELEASE FROM CURCUMA ZEDOARIA, PLANTA MED., 67(6):550–2, 2001.
JANG, Y.Y. ET AL., PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF BOLDINE ON OXIDATIVE MITOCHONDRIAL DAMAGE IN STREPTOZOTOCIN-INDUCED
DIABETIC RATS, PHARMACOL. RES., 42(4):361–71, 2000.
JEONG, H.J. ET AL., INHIBITION OF AROMATASE ACTIVITY BY FLAVONOIDS, ARCH. PHARM. RES,, 22(3):309–12, 1999.
(X10403137)
JIMENEZ, I. ET AL., PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF BOLDINE AGAINST FREE RADICAL-INDUCED ERYTHROCYTE LYSIS, PHYTOTHER. RES.,
14(5):339–43, 2000.
JIN, Y.H. ET AL., ALOESIN AND ARBUTIN INHIBIT TYROSINASE ACTIVITY IN A SYNERGISTIC MANNER VIA A DIFFERENT ACTION
MECHANISM, ARCH. PHARM. RES., 22(3):232–6, 1999.
JOSEPH, J., NADEAU, D., AND UNDERWOOD, A., THE COLOR CODE, HYPERION, NEW YORK, 2002. (JNU)
KAJIYA, K. ET AL., ROLE OF LIPOPHILICITY AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE FORMATION IN THE CYTOTOXICITY OF FLAVONOLS, BIOSCI.
BIOTECHNOL. BIOCHEM., 65(5):1227–9, 2001.
KASTURE, V.S., CHOPDE, C.T., AND DESHMUKH, V.K., ANTICONVULSIVE ACTIVITY OF ALBIZZIA LEBBECK, HIBISCUS ROSA
SINESIS AND BUTEA MONOSPERMA IN EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 71(1–2):65–75, 2000.
(X10904147)
KASUGA, S. ET AL., PHARMACOLOGIC ACTIVITIES OF AGED GARLIC EXTRACT IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER GARLIC PREPARATIONS,
J. NUTR., 131(3S):1080S-4S, 2001.
KATO, J. ET AL., INHIBITION OF RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES BY HOT WATER EXTRACT OF SPICES, BULL. COLL. AGR. & VET.
MED. NIHON. U., 47:84, 1990.
KAUFMAN, P.B. ET AL., NATURAL PRODUCTS FROM PLANTS, CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL, 1998.
KAUR, G. AND KULKARNI, S.K., INVESTIGATIONS ON POSSIBLE SEROTONERGIC INVOLVEMENT IN EFFECTS OF OB-200G
(POLYHERBAL PREPARATION) ON FOOD INTAKE IN FEMALE MICE, EUR. J. NUTR., 40(3):127–33, 2001.
KAWAI, T. ET AL., ANTI-EMETIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNOLIA OBOVATA BARK AND ZINGIBER OFFICINALE RHIZOME, PLANTA
MED., 60(1):17–20, 1994.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
KAZUHO, A. AND HIROSHI, S., EFFECTS OF SAFFRON EXTRACT AND ITS CONSTITUENT CROCIN ON LEARNING BEHAVIOUR AND
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION, PHYTOTHER. RES., 14(3):149–152, 2000.
KEVILLE, K., THE HERB REPORT — BLACK CUMIN (NIGELLA SATIVA), THE AMERICAN HERB ASSOCIATION’S QUARTERLY
NEWSLETTER, 16(2):3, 2000.
KHAN, A. ET AL., INSULIN POTENTIATING FACTOR AND CHROMIUM CONTENT OF SELECTED FOODS AND SPICES, BIOL. TRACE
ELEM. RES., 24(3):183–8, 1990.
KHAN, S. AND BALICK, M.J., THERAPEUTIC PLANTS OF AYURVEDA — A REVIEW OF SELECTED CLINICAL AND OTHER STUDIES FOR
166 SPECIES, J. ALT. COMP. MED., WITH 27 ILLUSTRATIONS BY FRANCESA ANDERSON, 7(5):405–515, 2001. (JAC)
KIM, K.I. ET AL., ANTITUMOR, GENOTOXICITY AND ANTICLASTOGENIC ACTIVITIES OF POLYSACCHARIDE FROM CURCUMA
ZEDOARIA, MOL. CELLS, 10(4):392–8, 2000.
KIM, O.K. ET AL., AN AVOCADO CONSTITUENT, PERSENONE A, SUPPRESSES EXPRESSION OF INDUCIBLE FORMS OF NITRIC
OXIDE SYNTHASE AND CYCLOOXYGENASE IN MACROPHAGES, AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE GENERATION IN MOUSE SKIN,
BIOSCI. BIOTECHNOL. BIOCHEM., 64(11):2504–7, 2000A..
KIM, O.K. ET AL., INHIBITION BY (-)-PERSENONE A-RELATED COMPOUNDS OF NITRIC OXIDE AND SUPEROXIDE GENERATION
FROM INFLAMMATORY LEUKOCYTES, BIOSCI. BIOTECHNOL. BIOCHEM., 64(11):2500–3, 2000B. (X11193427)
KLOSS, J., BACK TO EDEN, 5TH ED., WOODBRIDGE PRESS PUBLISHING CO., SANTA BARBARA, CA, 1975.
KOCH, H.P. AND LAWSON, L.D., EDS., (ORG. COPYRIGHT 1939.) GARLIC — THE SCIENCE AND THERAPEUTIC APPLICATION
OF ALLIUM SATIVUM L. AND RELATED SPECIES, WILLIAMS & WILKINS, BALTIMORE, MD, 1996. (LAW)
KUBO, I. AND KINST-HORI, I., FLAVONOLS FROM SAFFRON FLOWER — TYROSINASE INHIBITORY ACTIVITY AND INHIBITION
MECHANISM, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 47(10):4121–4125, 1999.
KUBO, I. ET AL., FLAVONOLS FROM HETEROTHECA INULOIDES: TYROSINASE INHIBITORY ACTIVITY AND STRUCTURAL CRITERIA,
BIOORG. MED. CHEM., 8(7):1749–55, 2001.
KULKARNI, R.R. ET AL., TREATMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS WITH A HERBOMINERAL FORMULA: A DOUBLE-BLIND, PLACEBOCONTROLLED, CROSS-OVER STUDY, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 33:91–95, 1991.
LAMM, D.L. AND RIGGS, D.R., ENHANCED IMMUNOCOMPETENCE BY GARLIC: ROLE IN BLADDER CANCER AND OTHER
MALIGNANCIES, J. NUTR., 131(3S):1067S-70S, 2001.
LAWSON, L.D., GARLIC — A REVIEW OF ITS MEDICINAL EFFECTS AND INDICATED ACTIVE COMPOUNDS, IN: PHYTOMEDICINES
OF EUROPE—CHEMICALS AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, LAWSON, L. AND BAUER, R., EDS., ACS SYMPOSIUM
SERIES #691, AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D.C., 1998. (LAB)
LEE, E. AND SURH, Y.J., INDUCTION OF APOPTOSIS IN HL-60 CELLS BY PUNGENT VANILLOIDS, [6]-GINGEROL AND [6]-
PARADOL, CANCER LETT., 134(2):163–8, 1998.
LEUNG, A.Y. AND FOSTER, S., ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMMON NATURAL INGREDIENTS, 2ND ED., JOHN WILEY & SONS, NEW
YORK, 1995. (LAF)
LEWIS, W. AND ELVIN-LEWIS, M., MEDICAL BOTANY, JOHN WILEY & SONS, NEW YORK, 1977. (LEL)
LEUNG, A.Y., ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMMON NATURAL INGREDIENTS USED IN FOOD, DRUGS, AND COSMETICS, JOHN WILEY
& SONS, NEW YORK, 1980. (AYL)
LIBSTER, M., DELMAR’S INTEGRATIVE HERB GUIDE FOR NURSES, DELMAR–THOMSON LEARNINGS, ALBANY, NY, 2002.
LIM, G.P. ET AL., THE CURRY SPICE CURCUMIN REDUCES OXIDATIVE DAMAGE AND AMYLOID PATHOLOGY IN AN ALZHEIMER
TRANSGENIC MOUSE, J. NEUROSCI., 21(21):8370–7, 2001.
LIN, R.I., PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND MEDICINAL USE OF PEPPER (PIPER NIGRUM L.), IN: SPICES, HERBS AND
EDIBLE FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V. AMSTERDAM, 1994.
LIN, S.C. ET AL., PROTECTIVE AND THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF CURCUMA XANTHORRHIZA ON HEPATOTOXIN-INDUCED LIVER
DAMAGE, AM. J. CHIN. MED., 23(3–4):243–54, 1995.
LIST, P.H. AND HOHAMMER, L., HAGER’S HANDBUCH DER PHARMAZEUTISCHEN PRAXIS, VOLS. 2–6, SPRINGER-VERLAG,
BERLIN, 1969–1979. (HHB)
LITTLE, C.V. AND PARSONS, T., HERBAL THERAPY FOR TREATING OSTEOARTHRITIS (COCHRANE REVIEW), COCHRANE DATABASE
SYST. REV., 1:CD002947, 2001. (X11279783)
LIU, L.X., DURHAM, D.G., AND RICHARDS, R.M., VANCOMYCIN RESISTANCE REVERSAL IN ENTEROCOCCI BY FLAVONOIDS,
J. PHARM. PHARMACOL., 53(1):129–32, 2001. (X11206187)
MA, J. ET AL., TI APOPTOSIS INDUCED BY ISOLIQUIRITIGENIN IN HUMAN GASTRIC CANCER MGC-803 CELLS, PLANTA MED.,
67(8):754–757, 2001.
MAJEED, M. ET AL., CURCUMINOIDS — ANTIOXIDANT PHYTONUTRIENTS, NUTRISCIENCE PUBLISHING, PISCATAWAY, NJ, 1995.
MANSOUR, M.A., PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF THYMOQUINONE AND DESFERRIOXAMINE AGAINST HEPATOTOXICITY OF CARBON
TETRACHLORIDE IN MICE, LIFE SCI., 66(26):2583–91, 2000.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
MARLES, R.J., COMPADRE, C.M. AND FARNSWORTH, N.R., COUMARIN IN VANILLA EXTRACTS — ITS DETECTION AND
SIGNIFICANCE, ECON. BOT., 41(1):41–47, 1987.
MARTINEZ-TOME, M. ET AL., ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF MEDITERRANEAN SPICES COMPARED WITH COMMON FOOD
ADDITIVES, J. FOOD PROT., 64(9):1412–9, 2001. (X11563520)
MASON, R., QUESTIONING CONVENTIONAL ONCOLOGY — AN INTERVIEW WITH CANCER ACTIVIST RALPH W. MOSS, PH.D.,
ALT. & COM. THERAPIE, 7(1):21–26, 2001.
MATA, R. ET AL., BIOLOGICAL AND MECHANISTIC ACTIVITIES OF XANTHORRIZOL AND 4-(1′,5′-DIMETHYLHEX-4′-ENYL)-2-
METHYLPHENOL ISOLATED FROM IOSTEPHANE HETEROPHYLLA, J. NAT. PROD., 64(7):911–4, 2001.
MCCALEB, R., JAMA BASHES HERBS FOR SURGICAL PATIENTS, HERB RESEARCH NEWS 5(2):2, 2001.
MCCORMICK & CO., INC., SPICES OF THE WORLD COOKBOOK, PENGUIN BOOKS, 1981.
MERCADANTE, A.Z., STECK, A., AND PFANDER, H., ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NEW APOCAROTENOIDS FROM ANNATTO
(BIXA ORELLANA) SEEDS, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 45(4):1050–1054, 1997.
MICKLEFIELD, G.H., GREVING, I., AND MAY, B., EFFECTS OF PEPPERMINT OIL AND CARAWAY OIL ON GASTRODUODENAL
MOTILITY, PHYTOTHER. RES., 14(1):20–23, 2000.
MILLS, S. AND BONE, K., PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PHYTOTHERAPY, CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE, EDINBURGH, 1999.
(MAB)
MILNER, J.A. AND RIVLIN, R.S., EDS., RECENT ADVANCES ON THE NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF GARLIC
AS A SUPPLEMENT, J. NUTR., 131(3S):951S-1123S, 2001.
MIRALDI, E. ET AL., PEUMUS BOLDUS ESSENTIAL OIL — NEW CONSTITUENTS AND COMPARISON OF OILS FROM LEAVES OF
DIFFERENT ORIGIN, FITOTERAPIA, 67(3):227–230, 1996.
MIYAMURA, M. ET AL., SEVEN AROMATIC COMPOUNDS FROM BARK OF CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, PHYTOCHEMISTRY, 22(1):215,
1983.
MOERMAN, D.E., NATIVE AMERICAN ETHNOBOTANY, TIMBER PRESS, PORTLAND, OR, 1998. (DEM)
MOLDENKE, H.N., THE ECONOMIC PLANTS OF THE BIBLE, ECON. BOT., 8:152–163, 1954.
MOLDENKE, H.N. AND MOLDENKE, A.L., PLANTS OF THE BIBLE, CHRONICA BOTANICA CO., WALTHAM, MA, 1952.
MORIMITSU, Y. ET AL., A SULFORAPHANE ANALOGUE THAT POTENTLY ACTIVATES THE NRF2-DEPENDENT DETOXIFICATION PATHWAY,
J. BIOL. CHEM., 277(5):3456–63, 2002.
MORTON, J.F., MAJOR MEDICINAL PLANTS, C.C. THOMAS, PUBLISHER, SPRINGFIELD, IL, 1977. (JFM)
MOSS, R.W, AS QUOTED IN MASON, R., QUESTIONING CONVENTIONAL ONCOLOGY — AN INTERVIEW WITH CANCER ACTIVIST
RALPH W. MOSS, ALT. & COM. THERAPIE, 7(1):21–26, 2001.
MOWREY, D.B., GUARANTEED POTENCY HERBS. NEXT GENERATION HERBAL MEDICINE, CORMORANT BOOKS, LEHI, UT,
1988.
MURAKAMI, N., STOMACHIC PRINCIPLES IN GINGER. III. AN ANTI-ULCER PRINCIPLE, 6-GINGESULFONIC ACID, AND THREE
MONOACYLDIGALACTOSYLGLYCEROLS, GINGERGLYCOLIPIDS A, B, AND C, FROM ZINGIBERIS RHIZOMA ORIGINATING
IN TAIWAN, CHEM. PHARM. BULL. (TOKYO), 42(6):1226–30, 1994. (X8069973)
MURRAY, M.T AND PIZZORNO, J.E., ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NATURAL MEDICINE, PRIMA PUBLISHING, ROCKLIN, CA, 1991.
(MAP)
MUSTALISH, R.W. AND BAXTER, R.L., MINA JAO: A VILLAGE GREEN PHARMACY IN AMAZONIA, HERBALGRAM, 51:56–64,
2001.
NAKATANI, N., ANTIOXIDATIVE AND ANTIMICROBIAL CONSTITUENTS OF HERBS AND SPICES IN: SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE
FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V., AMSTERDAM, 1994.
NEGI, P.S. ET AL., ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF TURMERIC OIL: A BYPRODUCT FROM CURCUMIN MANUFACTURE, J. AGRIC. FOOD
CHEM., 47(10):297–300, 1999.
NEWMARK, T.M. AND SCHULICK, P., BEYOND ASPIRIN — NATURE’S ANSWER TO ARTHRITIS, CANCER, AND ALZHEIMER’S
DISEASE, HOHM PRESS, PRESCOTT, AZ, 2000. (COX)
NIELSEN, P.V. AND RIOS, R., INHIBITION OF FUNGAL GROWTH ON BREAD BY VOLATILE COMPONENTS FROM SPICES AND HERBS,
AND THE POSSIBLE APPLICATION IN ACTIVE PACKAGING, WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON MUSTARD ESSENTIAL OIL, INT.
J. FOOD MICROBIOL., 60(2–3):219–29, 2000. (X11016611)
NISHIYAMA, N. ET AL., AMELIORATIVE EFFECT OF S-ALLYLCYSTEINE, A MAJOR THIOALLYL CONSTITUENT IN AGED GARLIC EXTRACT,
ON LEARNING DEFICITS IN SENESCENCE-ACCELERATED MICE, J. NUTR., 131(3S):1093S-5S, 2001. (X11238823)
NOHARA, T. ET AL., TWO NOVEL DITERPENES FROM BARK OF CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, PHYTOCHEMISTRY, 21(8):2130, 1982.
OCHSE, J.J., VEGETABLES OF THE DUTCH EAST INDIES., A. ASHER & CO., B.V., AMSTERDAM, 1931 (REPRINT 1980).
OHNISHI, S.T. AND OHNISHI, T., IN VITRO EFFECTS OF AGED GARLIC EXTRACT AND OTHER NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS ON SICKLE
ERYTHROCYTES, J. NUTR., 131(3S):1085S-92S, 2001.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ONOGI, T. ET AL., CAPSAICIN-LIKE EFFECT OF (6)-SHOGAOL ON SUBSTANCE P-CONTAINING PRIMARY AFFERENTS OF RATS: A
POSSIBLE MECHANISM OF ITS ANALGESIC ACTION, NEUROPHARMACOLOGY, 31(11):1165–9, 1992.
PARRY, J.W., SPICES VOLUME 1, CHEMICAL PUBLISHING CO., INC., NEW YORK, 1969.
PATEL, K. AND SRINIVASAN, K., INFLUENCE OF DIETARY SPICES OR THEIR ACTIVE PRINCIPLES ON DIGESTIVE ENZYMES OF
SMALL INTESTINAL MUCOSA IN RATS, INT. J. FOOD SCI. NUTRITION, 47(1):55–9, 1985.
PATTNAIK, S., SUBRAMANYAM, V.R., AND KOLE, C., ANTIBACTERIAL AND ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF TEN ESSENTIAL OILS IN VITRO,
MICROBIOS, 86(349):237–46, 1996.
PEIRCE, A. THE APHA PRACTICAL GUIDE TO NATURAL MEDICINES, STONESONG PRESS BOOK, WM. MORROW & CO., INC.,
NEW YORK, 1999. (APA)
PITASAWAT, B. ET AL., SCREENING FOR LARVICIDAL ACTIVITY OF TEN CARMINATIVE PLANTS, SOUTHEAST ASIAN J. TROP. MED.
PUBLIC HEALTH, 29(3):660–2, 1998.
PREMKUMAR, K. ET AL., INHIBITION OF GENOTOXICITY BY SAFFRON (CROCUS SATIVUS L.) IN MICE, DRUG CHEM. TOXICOL.,
24(4):421–8, 2001.
PURSEGLOVE, J.W. ET AL., SPICES, 2 VOLS., LONGMAN, LONDON, 1981. (PEA)
QURESHI, S. ET AL., STUDIES ON HERBAL APHRODISIACS USED IN ARAB SYSTEM OF MEDICINE, AM. J. CHIN. MED.,
17(1&2):57–63, 1989.
QURESHI, S. ET AL., TOXICITY STUDIES ON ALPINIA GALANGA AND CURCUMA LONGA, PLANTA MED., 58(2):124–7, 1992.
(PM)
RAHMAN, K., HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON GARLIC AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, J. NUTR., 131(3S):977S, 2001.
RAM, A. ET AL., HYPOLIPIDAEMIC EFFECT OF MYRISTICA FRAGRANS FRUIT EXTRACT IN RABBITS, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL.,
55(1):49–53, 1996. (JE55:49)
RAMSEWAK, R.S. ET AL., BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE CARBAZOLE ALKALOIDS FROM MURRAYA KOENIGII, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM.,
47(2):444–7, 1999.
REED, C.F., WITH DUKE, J.A., TYPESCRIPT REPORTS ON 1000 ECONOMIC PLANTS SUBMITTED TO THE ECONOMIC BOTANY
LABORATORY USDA, 1976. (CFR)
RINZLER, C.A., THE COMPLETE BOOK OF HERBS, SPICES AND CONDIMENTS, FACTS ON FILE, NEW YORK, 1990. (RIN)
RIVLIN, R.S., HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE USE OF GARLIC, J. NUTR., 131(3S):951S-4S, 2001.
ROSEN, R.T. ET AL., DETERMINATION OF ALLICIN, S-ALLYLCYSTEINE AND VOLATILE METABOLITES OF GARLIC IN BREATH, PLASMA
OR SIMULATED GASTRIC FLUIDS, J. NUTR., 131(3S):968S-71S, 2001.
ROSENGARTEN, F. JR., THE BOOK OF SPICES, LIVINGSTON PUBLISHING CO., PYRAMID COMMUNICATIONS, INC., NEW YORK,
1969, REPUBLISHED IN PAPERBACK, 1973.
RUTTER, R.A., CATALOGO DE PLANTAS UTILES DE LA AMAZONIA PERUANA, INSTITUTO LINGUISTICO DE VERANO. YARINACOCHA,
PERU, 1990.
SAARINEN, N. ET AL., NO EVIDENCE FOR THE IN VIVO ACTIVITY OF AROMATASE-INHIBITING FLAVONOIDS, J. STEROID BIOCHEM.
MOL. BIOL., 78(3):231–9, 2001.
SACHDEWA, A., NIGAM, R., AND KHEMANI, L.D., HYPOGLYCEMIC EFFECT OF HIBISCUS ROSA SINENSIS L. LEAF EXTRACT
IN GLUCOSE AND STREPTOZOTOCIN INDUCED HYPERGLYCEMIC RATS, INDIAN J. EXP. BIOL., 39(3):284–6, 2001.
SALEEM, M., ALAM, A., AND SULTANA, S., ASAFOETIDA INHIBITS EARLY EVENTS OF CARCINOGENESIS: A CHEMOPREVENTIVE
STUDY, LIFE SCI., 68(16):1913–21, 2001. (X11292069)
SAMBAIAH, K. AND SRINIVASAN, K., INFLUENCE OF SPICES AND SPICE PRINCIPLES ON HEPATIC MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASE
SYSTEM IN RATS, IND. J. BIOCHEM. BIOPHYS., 26(4):254–8, 1989.
SCHULICK, P., GINGER — COMMON SPICE & WONDER DRUG, 2ND ED., HERBAL FREE PRESS, LTD., BRATTLEBORO, VT, 1994.
SCHULTES, R.E. AND RAFFAUF, R.F., THE HEALING FOREST, DIOSCORIDES PRESS, PORTLAND, OR, 1990.
SHARAF, M. ET AL., QUERCETIN TRIGLYCOSIDE FROM CAPPARIS SPINOSA, FITOTERAPIA, 71:46–49, 2000.
SHARMA, A., GAUTAM, S., AND JADHAV, S.S., SPICE EXTRACTS AS DOSE-MODIFYING FACTORS IN RADIATION INACTIVATION
OF BACTERIA, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 48(4):1340–4, 2000. (X10775394)
SHARMA, N. ET AL., INHIBITION OF BENZO[A]PYRENE- AND CYCLOPHOSHAMIDE-INDUCED MUTAGENICITY BY CINNAMOMUM
CASSIA, MUTAT. RES., 480–481:179–88, 2001.
SHAUGHNESSY, D.T., SETZER, R.W., AND DEMARINI, D.M., THE ANTIMUTAGENIC EFFECT OF VANILLIN AND CINNAMALDEHYDE ON SPONTANEOUS MUTATION IN SALMONELLA TA104 IS DUE TO A REDUCTION IN MUTATIONS AT GC BUT NOT
AT SITES, MUTAT. RES., 1; 480–481:55–69, 2001.
SHERMAN, P.W. AND BILLING, J., DARWINIAN GASTRONOMY — WHY WE USE SPICES. SPICES TASTE GOOD BECAUSE THEY
ARE GOOD FOR US, BIOSCIENCE, 49(6):453–463, 1999.
SHERMAN, P.W. AND FLAXMAN, S.M., PROTECTING OURSELVES FROM FOOD, AMERICAN SCIENTIST, 89:142–151, 2001.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
SHERMAN, P.W. AND HASH, G.A., WHY VEGETABLE RECIPES ARE NOT VERY SPICY, EVOLUTION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR,
22(3):147–163, 2001.
SHIRWAIKAR, A. ET AL., CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION AND ANTIHEPATOTOXIC ACTIVITY OF THE ROOT BARK OF CAPPARIS SPINOSA,
FITOTERAPIA, 67(3):200–4, 1996.
SHWAIREB, M.H. ET AL., INHIBITION OF MAMMARY GLAND TUMORIGENESIS IN THE RAT BY CARAWAY SEEDS AND DRIED
LEAVES OF WATERCRESS, ONCOLOGY REPORTS, 2(4):689–92, 1995.
SIMONDS, N., A SPOONFUL OF GINGER — IRRESISTIBLE, HEALTH-GIVING RECIPES FROM ASIAN KITCHENS, ALFRED A.
KNOPF, NEW YORK, 1999.
SIVAM, G.P., PROTECTION AGAINST HELICOBACTER PYLORI AND OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS BY GARLIC, J. NUTR.,
131(3S):1106S-8S, 2001. (X11238826)
SMITH G.C. ET AL., MINERAL VALUES OF SELECTED PLANT FOODS COMMON TO SOUTHERN BURKINA FASO AND TO NIAMEY,
NIGER, WEST AFRICA, INT. J. FOOD SCI. NUTR., 47(1):41–53, 1996. (X8616672)
SOMOVA, L.I. ET AL., CARDIOVASCULAR AND DIURETIC ACTIVITY OF KAURENE DERIVATIVES OF XYLOPIA AETHIOPICA AND
ALEPIDEA AMATYMBICA, J. ETHNOPHARMACOL., 77(2–3):165–74, 2001. (X11535360)
SRIVASTAVA, K.C. AND MALHOTRA, N., CHARACTERIZATION AND EFFECTS OF A COMPONENT ISOLATED FROM A COMMON SPICE
CLOVE (CARYOPHYLLI FLOS) ON PLATELET AGGREGATION AND EICOSANOID PRODUCTION, THROMB. HAEMORRH DISORDERS, 1/2:59, 1990.
STANDISH, L.J., CALABRESE, C., AND GALANTINO, M.L., EDS., AIDS AND COMPLEMENTARY & ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
— CURRENT SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE, PHILADELPHIA, 2002.
STRANDBERG, T.E. ET AL., BIRTH OUTCOME IN RELATION TO LICORICE CONSUMPTION DURING PREGNANCY, AM. J. EPIDEMIOL.,
153(11):1085–8, 2001. (X11390327)
STUCKER, M. ET AL., VITAMIN B(12) CREAM CONTAINING AVOCADO OIL IN THE THERAPY OF PLAQUE PSORIASIS, DERMATOLOGY.,
203(2):141–7, 2001. (X11586013)
SUEKAWA, M. ET AL., PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES ON GINGER. IV. EFFECT OF (6)-SHOGAOL ON THE ARACHIDONIC CASCADE,
NIPPON YAKURIGAKU ZASSHI, 88(4):263–9, 1986. (X1330955)
SUN, R.C. ET AL., BIOACTIVE AROMATIC COMPOUNDS FROM LEAVES AND STEMS OF VANILLA FRAGRANS, J. AGRIC. FOOD
CHEM., 49(11):5161–5164, 2001. (JAF)
SURH, Y., MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF CHEMOPREVENTIVE EFFECTS OF SELECTED DIETARY AND MEDICINAL PHENOLIC
SUBSTANCES, MUTAT. RES., 428(1–2):305–27, 1999.
SUTTON, R.H., COCOA POISONING IN A DOG, VET. REC., 109(25–26):563–564, 1981.
TACHIBANA, Y. ET AL., ANTIOXIDATIVE ACTIVITY OF CARBAZOLES FROM MURRAYA KOENIGII LEAVES, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM.,
49(11):5589–5594, 2001.
TAINTER, D.R. AND GRENIS, A.T., SPICES AND SEASONINGS — A FOOD TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK, VCH PUBLISHERS,
INC., NY, 1993. (SAS)
TAIRU, A.O., HOFMANN, T., AND SCHIEBERLE, P., CHARACTERIZATION OF THE KEY AROMA COMPOUNDS IN DRIED FRUITS OF
THE WEST AFRICAN PEPPERTREE XYLOPIA AETHIOPICA (DUNAL) A. RICH (ANNONACEAE) USING AROMA EXTRACT
DILUTION ANALYSIS, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 47(8):3285–7, 1999.
TAKECHI, M. AND TANAKA, Y., PURIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTIVIRAL SUBSTANCE EUGENIIN FROM THE BUD OF
SYZYGIUM AROMATICA AROMATICUM, PLANTA MED., 42(1):69, 1981.
TANAKA, T., TANAKA’S CYCLOPEDIA OF EDIBLE PLANTS OF THE WORLD, KEIGAKU PUBLISHING CO., TOKYO, 1976. (TAN)
TAWATSIN, A. ET AL., REPELLENCY OF VOLATILE OILS FROM PLANTS AGAINST THREE MOSQUITO VECTORS, J. VECTOR ECOL.,
26(1):76–82, 2001. (X11469188)
TEISSEDRE, P.L. AND WATERHOUSE, A.L., INHIBITION OF OXIDATION OF HUMAN LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS BY PHENOLIC
SUBSTANCES IN DIFFERENT ESSENTIAL OILS VARIETIES, J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM., 48(9):3801–5, 2000.
THIERET, J.W., FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH, LLOYDIA, 1(4):6–9, 1996.
TISSERAND, R., NEW PERSPECTIVES ON ESSENTIAL OIL SAFETY IN AROMA’95 — ONE BODY — ONE MIND, AROMATHERAPY
PUBLICATIONS, SUSEX, ENGLAND, 1995.
TJENDRAPUTRA, E. ET AL., EFFECT OF GINGER CONSTITUENTS AND SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES ON CYCLOOXYGENASE-2 ENZYME IN
INTACT CELLS, BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 29:156–163, 2001.
TRAVIS, J., A SPICE TAKES ON ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE, SCI. NEWS, 160:362, 2001.
TSENG, T.H. ET AL., INDUCTION OF APOPTOSIS BY HIBISCUS PROTOCATECHUIC ACID IN HUMAN LEUKEMIA CELLS VIA REDUCTION
OF RETINOBLASTOMA (RB) PHOSPHORYLATION AND BCL-2 EXPRESSION, BIOCHEM. PHARMACOL., 60(3):307–15,
2000.
TUCKER, A.O. AND DEBAGGIO, T., THE BIG BOOK OF HERBS, INTERWEAVE PRESS, INC., LOVELAND, CO, 2000. (TAD)
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
TUCKER, A.O., MACIARELLO, M.J., AND BRODERICK, C.E., FILÉ AND THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE LEAVES, TWIGS, AND
COMMERCIAL ROOT TEAS OF SASSAFRAS ALBIDUM (NUTT). NEES, PP. 595–604 IN SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE
FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE, AMSTERDAM, 1994. (AOT)
TYLER, V.E., HERBS OF CHOICE — THE THERAPEUTIC USE OF PHYTOMEDICINALS, PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS PRESS, NEW
YORK, 1994. (HOC)
UNNIKRISHNAN, M.C. AND KUTTAN, R., TUMOUR REDUCING AND ANTICARCINOGENIC ACTIVITY OF SELECTED SPICES, CANCER
LETT., 51(1):85–9, 1990. (X2110862)
VERNIN, G. AND PARKANYI, C., STUDIES OF PLANTS IN THE UMBELLIFERAE FAMILY: II GC/MS ANALYSIS OF CELERY SEED
ESSENTIAL OILS, PP. 329–345 IN SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER
SCIENCE, AMSTERDAM, 1994.
VIMALA, S., NORHANOM, A.W., AND YADAV, M., ANTI-TUMOUR PROMOTER ACTIVITY IN MALAYSIAN GINGER RHIZOBIA USED
IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE, BR. J. CANCER, 80(1–2):110–6, 1999. (X10389986)
VUTYAVANICH, T., KRAISARIN, T., AND RUANGSRI, R., GINGER FOR NAUSEA AND VOMITING IN PREGNANCY — RANDOMIZED,
DOUBLE-MASKED, PLACEBO-CONTROLLED TRIAL, OBSTET. GYNECOL., 97(4):577–82, 2001.
WANG, C.J. ET AL., PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF HIBISCUS ANTHOCYANINS AGAINST TERT-BUTYL HYDROPEROXIDE-INDUCED HEPATIC
TOXICITY IN RATS, FOOD CHEM. TOXICOL., 38(5):411–6, 2000. (X10762726)
WATT, G., DICTIONARY OF THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF INDIA, 6 VOLS., NAV BHARAT OFFSET PROCESS, DELHI, INDIA,
1889–1892, REPRINT 1972. (DEP)
WEED, S.S., NEW MENOPAUSAL YEARS — THE WISE WOMAN WAY, ASH TREE PUBLISHING, WOODSTOCK, NY, 2002.
WEIDNER, M.S. AND SIGWART, K., INVESTIGATION OF THE TERATOGENIC POTENTIAL OF A ZINGIBER OFFICINALE EXTRACT IN
THE RAT, REPROD. TOXICOL., 15(1):75–80, 2001. (X11137381)
WETHERILT, H. AND PALA, M., HERBS AND SPICES INDIGENOUS TO TURKEY, PP. 285–307 IN SPICES, HERBS AND EDIBLE
FUNGI, CHARALAMBOUS, G., ED., ELSEVIER SCIENCE, AMSTERDAM, 1994.
WHITE, L.B. ET AL., THE HERBAL DRUGSTORE, RODALE PRESS, 2000.
WHITE, L. AND MAVOR, S., KIDS, HERBS, HEALTH — A PARENT’S GUIDE TO NATURAL REMEDIES, INTERWEAVE PRESS, 1998.
WINSTON, D., NWOTI — CHEROKEE MEDICINE AND ETHNOBOTANY, J. AMER. HERBALISTS GUILD, 2(2): 45–9, 2001.
(JAH2)
WOOD, J.N., ED., CAPSAICIN IN THE STUDY OF PAIN, ACADEMIC PRESS, NY, 1993.
WORTHEN, D.R., GHOSHEH, O.A., AND CROOKS, P.A., THE IN VITRO ANTI-TUMOR ACTIVITY OF SOME CRUDE AND PURIFIED
COMPONENTS OF BLACKSEED, NIGELLA SATIVA L., ANTICANCER RES., 18(3A):1527–32, 1998.
WROBEL, K., WROBEL, K., AND URBINA, E.M., DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ALUMINUM, CHROMIUM, COPPER, IRON, MANGANESE, AND NICKEL AND THEIR FRACTIONS LEACHED TO THE INFUSIONS OF BLACK TEA, GREEN TEA, HIBISCUS
SABDARIFFA, AND ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS (MATÉ) BY ETA-AAS, BIOL. TRACE ELEM. RES., 78(1–3):271–80,
2000. (X11314985)
YAMAHARA, J. ET AL., STOMACHIC PRINCIPLES IN GINGER. II. PUNGENT AND ANTI-ULCER EFFECTS OF LOW POLAR CONSTITUENTS
ISOLATED FROM GINGER, THE DRIED RHIZOMA OF ZINGIBER OFFICINALE ROSCOE CULTIVATED IN TAIWAN — THE
ABSOLUTE STEREOSTRUCTURE OF A NEW DIARYLHEPTANOID, YAKUGAKU ZASSHI, 112(9):645–55, 1992.
YARNELL, E. AND ABASCAL, K., IMMUNOMODULATORS AND HIV INFECTION — AN UPDATE, ALT. & COMP. THERAPIE,
321–324, 2000.
YASNI, S. ET AL., IDENTIFICATION OF AN ACTIVE PRINCIPLE IN ESSENTIAL OILS AND HEXANE-SOLUBLE FRACTIONS OF CURCUMA
XANTHORRHIZA ROXB. SHOWING TRIGLYCERIDE-LOWERING ACTION IN RATS, FOOD CHEM. TOXICOL., 32(3):273–8,
1994.
YOKOYAMA, K.M. ET AL., U. S. IMPORT STATISTICS FOR AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 1981–1986, TRANSACTION BOOKS,
NEW BRUNSWICK NJ, 1988. (NOT CITED BUT USED IN COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE LECTURES.)
YOSHIKAWA, M. ET AL., ALCOHOL ABSORPTION INHIBITORS FROM BAY LEAF (LAURUS NOBILIS) — STRUCTURE-REQUIREMENTS
OF SESQUITERPENES FOR THE ACTIVITY, BIOORG. MED. CHEM., 8(8):2071–7, 2000. (X11003152)
YOSHIKAWA, M. ET AL., STOMACHIC PRINCIPLES IN GINGER. III. AN ANTI-ULCER PRINCIPLE, 6-GINGESULFONIC ACID, AND
THREE MONOACYLDIGALACTOSYLGLYCEROLS, GINGERGLYCOLIPIDS A, B, AND C, FROM ZINGIBERIS RHIZOMA ORIGINATING IN TAIWAN, CHEM. PHARM. BULL. (TOKYO), 42(6):1226–30, 1994. (X8069973)
YOSHIOKA, T. ET AL., ANTIINFLAMMATORY POTENCY OF DEHYDROCURDIONE, A ZEDOARY-DERIVED SESQUITERPENE, INFLAMM.
RES., 47(12):476–81, 1998.
YOSHITANI, S.I. ET AL., CHEMOPREVENTION OF AZOXYMETHANE-INDUCED RAT COLON CARCINOGENESIS BY DIETARY CAPSAICIN
AND ROTENONE, INT. J. ONCOL., 19(5):929–39, 2001. (X11604990)
ZHU, B.C. ET AL., EVALUATION OF VETIVER OIL AND SEVEN INSECT-ACTIVE ESSENTIAL OILS AGAINST THE FORMOSAN SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE, J. CHEM. ECOL., 27(8):1617–25, 2001.
©2003 CRC PRESS LLC
ZHU, N. ET AL., FURANOSESQUITERPENOIDS OF COMMIPHORA MYRRHA, J. NAT. PROD., 64(11):1460–1462, 2001.
ZOHARY, M., PLANTS OF THE BIBLE, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK, 1982.
ZOHARY, M., FLORA PALAESTINA, ISRAEL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES, 8 VOLS., 4 OF PLATES TO DATE, 1966
TO PRESENT.